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The Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, with the gold Dome of the Rock sitting just behind. |
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Three of the world's major religions -- the
monotheist
traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
-- were all born in the Middle East and are all inextricably linked to
one another. Christianity was born from within the Jewish tradition,
and Islam developed from both Christianity and Judaism.
While there have been differences among these religions, there was a
rich cultural interchange between Jews, Christians, and Muslims that
took place in Islamic Spain and other places over centuries.
Judaism
A brief history of Judaism
Judaism is the oldest surviving monotheistic religion, arising in the eastern Mediterranean in the second millennium
B.C.E.
Abraham is traditionally considered to be the
first Jew and to have made a covenant with God. Because Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam all recognize Abraham as their first prophet,
they are also called the Abrahamic religions.
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An ancient wall relief depicting a religious scene [ enlarge ] |
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While there was always a small community of Jews in historic
Palestine,
in 73
C.E.
the Roman Empire dispersed the Jews after an insurrection against Roman authority. Most Jews then lived in
Diaspora,
as minorities in their communities, until the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.
When Jews from all over the world came to settle in modern Israel,
they found that various subcultures had developed in different areas
with distinctive histories, languages, religious practices, customs,
and cuisine.
Jewish cultural groups
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Homeless Jews arrive in search of a new life, Haifa, Palestine, July 21, 1947. [ enlarge ] |
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Jews from Germany and Eastern Europe were known as Ashkenazim (from
"Ashkenazic" the Hebrew word for Germany). Yiddish, a fusion of German
and Hebrew, was the spoken language of the Ashkenazi. In Europe, Jews
had tended to be segregated -- voluntarily or not -- from the Christian
population. From the late 19th and through first half of the 20th
century, many Ashkenazi Jews came to Palestine to escape the
persecution and discrimination they faced because of their religion.
Sephardic Jews trace their ancestry to the Iberian Peninsula
(modern-day Spain and Portugal; "Sephardic" comes from the Hebrew word
for Spain). They once spoke Ladino, a mixture of Hebrew and Spanish.
Mizrahi Jews (from the Hebrew word for Eastern, also sometimes
called Oriental Jews) trace their origin to North Africa and Asia.
Mizrahi and Sephardic Jewish communities tended to be integrated into
their respective societies.
Judaism in Israel and America
There is great difference of opinion among Israeli Jews over the
role Jewish religious law should play in the state. Until recently,
Orthodox Judaism was the only form of the religion formally and legally
recognized in Israel. Although less conservative branches of Judaism
now have partial recognition, Orthodoxy remains dominant politically
and legally.
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An Orthodox Jewish man prays at the Western Wall in Jerusalem. [ enlarge ] |
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Many Israeli Jews describe themselves in terms of their degree of observance of Jewish law. About half call themselves
secular;
about 15 to 20 percent see themselves as
Orthodox or ultra-Orthodox; and the rest describe themselves as
traditionally observant, but not as strict as the Orthodox.
In the United States, debate over the necessity of observing Jewish
law has led to the development of three major movements. Orthodox Jews
believe that Jewish law is unchanging and mandatory. Conservative Jews
argue that God's laws change and evolve over time. Reform and
Reconstructionist Jews believe that these laws are merely guidelines
that individuals can choose to follow or not. In addition, there are
many Jews in the United States who are secular or atheist. For them,
their Judaism is a culture rather than a religion.
What Jews believe
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Jews believe in one god and his prophets, with special respect for
Moses as the prophet to whom God gave the law. Jewish law is embodied
in the
Torah
(also known as the Pentateuch) and the Talmud (collected commentary on the Torah completed in the fifth-century C.E.).
Judaism is more concerned with actions than dogma. In other words,
observance of rules regulating human behavior has been of more concern
than debates over beliefs in the Jewish tradition. According to
Orthodox Judaism, Jewish law, or halakhah, includes 613
commandments given by God in the Torah, as well as rules and practices
elaborated by scholars and custom. Jewish law covers matters such as
prayer and ritual, diet, rules regulating personal status (marriage,
divorce, birth, death, inheritance, etc.), and observance of holidays
(like Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement; and Passover, the feast
celebrating the exodus of the Jews from slavery in Egypt).
Judaism's views of Christianity and Islam
Jews do not believe in the prophets after the Jewish prophets,
including Jesus and Muhammad. Therefore, they do not subscribe to the
idea that Jesus was the Messiah and the son of God, nor do they believe
in the teachings of Islam.
Christianity
A brief history of Christianity
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An aerial view of Istanbul, Turkey, formerly Constantinople [ enlarge ] |
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Christianity started as an offshoot of Judaism in the first century
C.E. Until the emperor Constantine converted to Christianity in 324
C.E., early Christian communities were often persecuted. It was then
that the Roman Empire became the Holy Roman Empire, and its capital
relocated from Rome to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium and now
Istanbul). The development of Christian groups derived from major and
minor splits.
The Orthodox Church and its patriarch split away from the Roman
Catholic Church and the Pope in 1054 C.E. because of political and
doctrinal differences. In the 16th century, Martin Luther, upset at the
corruption of the Catholic papacy, spearheaded a reformation movement
that led to the development of Protestantism.
Christian missionaries proselytize all over the world, and there are
large populations of Christians on every continent on Earth, although
the forms of Christianity practiced vary.
Christianity in the Middle East
Many early Christian saints lived in the Middle East. The tradition
of asceticism (denial of physical pleasures in order to come closer to
God) developed first in the Middle East, and the monastic tradition has
its roots there.
Christians in the Middle East today include Copts, Maronites,
Russian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Armenian Orthodox,
Armenian Catholics, Assyrians, and Protestants. These groups have
different liturgical languages, rituals, and customs, and different
leaders who direct their faith.
The Coptic Church, the dominant form of Christianity in Egypt, arose
from a doctrinal split in the Church at the Council of Chalcedon in
451. The Egyptian government supports the Copts' rights to worship and
maintain their culture, but there has been some violence against the
community by extremist Muslims.
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The establishment of Lebanon as an independent state is announced on
the steps of a Maronite church, Lebanon, 1920. [ enlarge ] |
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The Maronite Church was started in the fifth century by followers of
a Syrian priest named Maroun. The Maronite Patriarch, based in Lebanon,
guides his followers in the teachings of Maroun and other saints.
Maronites are still one of the most powerful political communities in
Lebanon.
There are also Christian communities of different sects living today
in Syria (10 percent of the population), Jordan (6 percent), the West
Bank (8 percent), and Iraq (3 percent), with smaller percentages in
other Middle Eastern countries.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many Christians from what is
now Syria and Lebanon (then the Ottoman Empire) emigrated to the United
States and other countries. Although Christians are a minority in the
Middle East today, more than 75 percent of Americans of Arab descent
are Christian.
What Christians believe
Christianity developed out of the monotheistic tradition of Judaism;
Jesus, its founder, was a member of the Jewish community in Roman
Palestine. Its holy scriptures are the Old Testament (the Jewish Torah
with additions), and the New Testament (written by the followers of
Jesus after his death and containing the life story of Jesus and other
early Christian writings).
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A Christian painting depicting Mary with the baby Jesus [ enlarge ] |
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Christians believe that God is revealed through three dimensions:
the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Jesus is
considered the son of God, born to the virgin Mary and come to Earth to
offer redemption for mankind's sins. After Jesus was crucified and
executed by the Romans, he rose from the dead and ascended into heaven.
This event is celebrated at Easter, while the birth of Jesus is
celebrated at Christmas.
Christians believe in an afterlife where those who have lived a good
life will reside in heaven with God, and those who have lived an
unrepentant life of sin will be punished in hell.
Christianity's views of Judaism and Islam
Although Christianity developed out of Judaic texts, Christians do
not follow Jewish law. Instead, they believe that the ritualistic
Jewish law was abrogated in favor of a universal gospel for all of
humanity and the Christian teaching, "Love thy neighbor as thyself."
Relationships between Jewish and Christian communities have often
been difficult, particularly in Christian Europe. There, Jewish
communities were often subject to discrimination and violence at the
hands of Christians.
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An artist's depiction of Christian Crusaders [ enlarge ] |
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Christianity has also had a problematic relationship with Islam.
Christians do not accept Muhammad as a prophet. While many Christians
in the Middle East converted to Islam during and after the seventh
century, the Church hierarchy in Rome and Constantinople considered
Islam to be both a political and theological threat. The Crusades were
an unsuccessful attempt to reverse the Islamic conquest of the eastern
Mediterranean and the holy places of all three monotheistic religions.
Islam
A brief history of Islam
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Pilgrims surround Kaaba, the holiest temple in Islam, at the center of the ancient shrine of Mecca. [ enlarge ] |
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Islam arose in the early seventh century C.E. in the settled desert
community of Mecca (in present-day Saudi Arabia). It developed from
both the Judeo-Christian tradition and the cultural values of the
nomadic Bedouin tribes of Arabia.
Islam expanded into areas controlled by the Byzantine Empire
(largely Greek-speaking and Orthodox Christian, but with a diverse
population) and the Sassanian Empire (officially Zoroastrian and
Persian-speaking, but also diverse). By the mid-eighth century, Islam
had spread west into North Africa and Europe, and east into Central
Asia. Over the centuries, Islam continued to grow in sub-Saharan
Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
As Islam expanded, the new Islamic societies adapted and synthesized
many of the customs they encountered. As a result, Muslims in different
areas of the world created for themselves a wide array of cultural
traditions.
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Islamist v. Islamic (3:06) Watch |
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The culture of Islamic Spain, for example, was so cosmopolitan that
some Christian and Jewish parents complained that their children were
more interested in developing their knowledge of Arabic than in
learning Latin or Hebrew, respectively. Many elements of Islamic
society became integral parts of medieval and Renaissance European
culture, like the notion of chivalry, and certain forms of music (the
lute, the arabesque) and poetry.
On the eastern end of the Islamic world, many Indonesians converted to Islam between the 15th and 17th centuries. Preexisting
animist
beliefs were often incorporated into the local practice of Islam.
Islamic communities
Within Islam, there are many different communities. Many of these
divisions, like the Sunnis, Shiis, Ismailis, Alevis/Alawites, and
Druze, originate in political and doctrinal differences in the
community. Adherents of Islam may be more or less observant,
conservative or liberal.
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Whirling dervishes playing musical instruments and dancing, Istanbul, photograph c. 1922 [ enlarge ] |
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Sufism is the mystical tradition of Islam, where direct experience
of the divine is emphasized. The 13th-century poet Jalaluddin Rumi is a
well-known Sufi figure whose work has become popular in the United
States today. Whirling dervishes are dancers who are entranced in their
experience of Sufism.
What Muslims believe
Muslims believe that Allah (the Arabic word for God) sent his revelation, the
Quran,
to the prophet Muhammad in the seventh century C.E. to proclaim it to mankind. The Quran contains verses (surahs) in Arabic that tell Muslims to worship one god, and explains how they should treat others properly.
Another historical text, the Hadith, written by scholars after the
death of Muhammad, describes Muhammad's life as an example of pious
behavior, proscribes law for the community based on the Quran and the
example of Muhammad, and explains how certain rituals should be
performed.
Observant Muslims practice five principles (pillars) of Islam: orally declaring their faith (shahadah); praying five times a day (salat); fasting in the daylight hours during the month of Ramadan (sawm); giving a share of their income for charity (zakat); and making a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime if they can afford it (hajj).
Many Muslims also observe dietary rules, in origin similar to those of
Judaism, that forbid certain foods (like pork), outlaw alcohol, and
dictate how animals should be slaughtered for food.
The Muslim calendar is lunar, and shifts in relation to the solar
calendar. Just as Christians count years starting with the year of
Jesus's birth, Muslims count years beginning with Muhammad's move from
Mecca to Medina in 622 C.E. Muslim years are labeled as A.H., Anno Hegirae, or "year of the Hijra."
Major Muslim festivals include Id al-Fitr (the Fast-Breaking
Festival, celebrated at the end of Ramadan) and Id al-Adha (the
Festival of Sacrifice, the commemoration of Abraham's willingness to
sacrifice Ishmail which takes place during the month of pilgrimage).
Muslims believe in a Day of Judgment, when righteous souls will go to heaven and wrongdoers will go to hell.
Islam's views of Judaism and Christianity
Islam sees Judaism and Christianity as earlier versions of Islam,
revelations given within the same tradition by Allah but misunderstood
over time by their followers. Muslims see Islam as the final, complete,
and correct revelation in the monotheistic tradition of the three
faiths.
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A 19th-century copy of Islam's holy book, the Quran, hand-copied in
Arabic, open to its first chapter, the Fatiha [ enlarge ] |
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The Islamic tradition recognizes many of the Jewish and Christian
prophets, including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus (although he is not
considered to be the son of God). Many non-Muslims mistakenly believe
that Muhammad is the equivalent of Jesus in the Islamic tradition; in
fact, it is the Quran that stands in the same central position in Islam
as Jesus does in Christianity. Muhammad himself is not divine, but a
prophet chosen by God to deliver his message and an example of piety to
emulate.
Jews and Christians are specifically protected in the Quran as
Peoples of the Book, reinforcing their spiritual connection to Islam by
virtue of having been given revelations from God. The Islamic legal
tradition has upheld the rights of Jews and Christians to maintain
their beliefs and practices within their communities in Islamic lands,
and this policy of tolerance has generally been upheld.
Back to top
Related sites
Inside the Kingdom - Part II:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/middle_east /jan-june02/saudi_2-15.html
NewsHour explores the debate over Islam, education, and culture in Saudi Arabia.
Christians in the Middle East:
http://search.npr.org/cf/cmn/cmnpd01fm.cfm ?PrgDate=04/23/2002&PrgID=5
Talk of the Nation looks at the role of Christians who live
in Israel and the West Bank. This story was aired during the military
standoff at Bethlehem's Church of the Nativity.
The Pope's Journey:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/religion/ jan-june01/pope_5-8.html
NewsHour conducts a discussion on Pope John Paul II's journey of reconciliation to Greece, Syria, and Malta.
Islam: Empire of Faith:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/index.html
The companion Web site for Islam: Empire of Faith, a PBS film about the world's fastest growing religion
Observing Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/religion/ july-dec01/islam_11-16.html
Islamic scholars discuss the future of Islam as Ramadan begins amid curiosity and concern. (Novemeber 2001)
Inside Out: Revolutionary Islam:
http://insideout.wbur.org/documentaries/revolutionaryislam/
This radio documentary examines the manifestations of political Islam around the world.
Guide to Religions of the World:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/people /features/world_religions/
A guide to six world religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Sikhism
Beliefnet Web Site:
http://www.belief.net/
A Web site on religion
Judaism 101 Web Site:
http://www.jewfaq.org/index.htm
An online encyclopedia on Judaism
Lexicon of Israeli "English":
http://www.iyba.co.il/lexicon.htm
A glossary of Israeli terms, acronyms, and abbreviations found in English-language publications
Exploring Religions:
http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/religionet/er/default.htm
Information on Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism
Who Are Eastern Christians?:
http://www.arimathea.co.uk/whoare.htm
The origin and definition of Eastern Christianity
Syria and Christianity:
http://atheism.about.com/library/world/KZ /bl_SyriaChristianity.htm
The history of Eastern Christianity in Syria
Islam:
http://www.cqpress.com/context/articles/epr_islam.html
An encyclopedia entry on Islam
Islam: A Worldwide Religion:
http://www.seasite.niu.edu/crossroads/russell/islam.htm
Islam's impact on Southeast Asia
Persian Poet Top Seller in America:
http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/1997/11/25/us/us.3.html
An article on the popularity of mystic Islamic poet Jalaluddin Rumi
Historical Maps of Islam:
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~brvs/pages/maps.html
Historical maps of Islam
Islam in Iran:
http://www.pbs.org/visavis/islam_in_iran_mstr.html
Vis � Vis explores the origins of Islam and its evolution in Iran.
Saudi Time Bomb?:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saudi/
Frontline investigates the hidden undercurrents of Islamic extremism, its far-flung reach, and its threat to the kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Religion & Culture:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/classroom/lp5.html
Students will consider the theme of religion and culture as they
learn about the Hindu-Muslim conflict in the province of Gujarat,
India.
Understanding History, Religion, and Politics in Jerusalem and Beyond:
http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2001/promises/intheclassroom.html
Students will acquire historical knowledge of the conflict between
Israelis and Palestinians in the region, learn how to interpret a
conflict from multiple perspectives, advocate for a point of view, and
develop greater conflict resolution skills.
Gender Issues in Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/teach/muslims/
Students will compare and contrast the roles of men and women with
regard to various topics in the six countries featured in the film.
Great Thinkers and Accomplishments of Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the diverse accomplishments of great Islamic scholars.
God Fights Back: 1978-1992:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/peoplescentury/teachers/tggod.html
In the 1970s, alienated Iranians flock to the promises of Islamic
fundamentalism and Egyptians and Algerians soon follow. In the 1980s,
alienated Americans flock to the promises of Christian fundamentalism.
The Fascinating World of Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson2.html
Students will research the people, places, and events that have shaped the history of Islam.
An Introduction to Islam and Muhammad:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson1.html
Students will compare the major monotheistic belief systems of the world.
Middle East: Crossroads of Faith and Conflict (map):
Supplement to National Geographic, October 2002
Related topics
Culture: A Rich Mosaic
Geography: An Ancient and Modern Crossroads
How were modern nation-states of the Middle East created?
What is religious militancy and its relationship to terrorism?
Related maps
Middle East Religion, Ethnic Groups, and Language Distribution
Muslim Population Worldwide
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