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| In October 2001, Dubai hosted Gitex, the Middle East's largest annual information technology exhibition. |
| � Reuters NewMedia Inc./CORBIS |
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Cutting-edge science in the Middle East
Following the rise of Islam in the seventh century
C.E.,
science and technology flourished in the Islamic
world to a far greater extent than they did in the West. Muslim rulers
promoted the translation of Greek philosophy and science texts, and
then encouraged further scientific exploration in numerous fields,
among them mathematics, astronomy, medicine, pharmacology, optics,
chemistry, botany, philosophy, and physics.
In mathematics, Muslim scholars introduced the use of zero, solutions to quadratic equations -- even the Arabic word "algebra."
Muslim astronomers knew the Earth was round and calculated its
diameter. Ibn al-Haytham (965-1040) explored momentum, gravity, and
optics 600 years before Galileo was accused of
heresy
for arguing that the Earth orbited the Sun.
Medicine was one of the most important fields of endeavor. Muslim
doctors were surgically removing cataracts and treating kidney and
gallstones while Europeans were still using leeches on their patients.
Ibn Sina (known in the West as Avicenna, 980-1037) wrote al-Qanun fi al-Tibb, or the Canons of Medicine,
a seminal volume that was the first to recognize the contagious nature
of tuberculosis, identify meningitis, and describe all the minute parts
of the eye. By the 12th century, the Canons had been translated into Latin, and European medicine relied on this text until well into the 1700s.
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An engraving of Muslim pioneer astronomer Ibn al-Haytham (965-1040) [ enlarge ] |
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Much of the knowledge developed by the Muslims and transmitted to the Europeans enabled Europe to emerge from the
Dark Ages
into the
Renaissance.
The technological advance of the West
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A page from Avicenna's seminal tome of medical learning, Canons of Medicine [ enlarge ] |
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During the 16th century, the Ottoman astronomer Taqi al-Din made
astronomical tables that were considered at least as accurate as those
of fellow 16th-century astronomer Tycho Brahe of Denmark, whose
observations of the planets served as the basis for
Kepler's Laws
of planetary motion. Only a century later, though, the
Ottomans
and their Muslim contemporaries in
Mughal India
and the
Persian Safavid Empire
ceased to support scientific research and innovations.
This change was due in part to the shifting priorities and
educational systems of these empires. Not unlike Europe in previous
centuries, groups wanting to protect the status quo became more
powerful than those advocating growth and experimentation. Meanwhile,
building on the earlier accomplishments of Muslim scientists, Europe's
scientific and industrial revolutions began to give the West a military
and economic advantage over the Islamic world.
By the 19th century, when Middle Eastern states like Egypt, Iran,
and the Ottoman Empire decided to develop modern infrastructure,
including railroads and telegraph lines, the work had to be contracted
to foreign firms. The cash-strapped Middle Eastern governments sold
concessions -- the right to develop and then profit from these
infrastructure development projects -- to European companies. These
opportunities gave European governments an interest in influencing
Middle Eastern regimes, in order to both win the contracts and then
protect their investments. In this way, the technological and
industrial capabilities of the West reinforced its political and
economic power in the region. Technological dependence on the West,
however, was seen as a threat to the independence of the Islamic world,
and resentment against Western power began to rise.
Technological advances in the modern Middle East
Historically, some of the most important technological achievements
in the Middle East were related to the use of water, from the ancient
Iranian qanats (underground canals that brought water from the
mountains to the arid plain) to the modern dam systems on the Nile and
Euphrates Rivers.
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Begun in 1898, Egypt's Aswan Dam was expanded with Soviet support in the 1960s. [ enlarge ] |
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In 1898, the Aswan Dam became the first major modern dam project, resulting in the successful damming of the Nile. In the 1960s, an expansion of the Aswan Dam was built with Soviet support.
Unfortunately, while these Nile dams regulated the water flow to
cropland, generated vital electricity, and shielded Egypt from years of
drought, they also introduced environmental problems that have cast a
shadow on their overall success. Since the Nile no longer floods, the
rich
silt
that used to fertilize Egyptian fields is
instead accumulating in Lake Nasser behind the Aswan Dam. As a result,
farmers downstream are forced to use massive amounts of artificial
fertilizers, which in turn run off into, and pollute, the Nile.
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Workmen in this undated photo use a water screw to help in irrigating fields in Egypt's Nile Delta. [ enlarge ] |
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The overall aridity of the region has motivated some of the richer
countries to search for technological solutions to their water
requirements. Through sustained investment in research, they have
become experts in water
desalination,
water recycling, and solar energy. The region's
oil-poor countries, however, Egypt among them, cannot afford such
advanced technologies and remain dependent on more traditional water
resources.
Scientific discovery and technological implementation varies widely
in the Middle East today. Israel's current position as a technological
leader and its close economic relationship with the West stand in sharp
contrast to its Arab neighbors. Israel, for example, is a world leader
in the development of voice-recognition software for computers.
Access to technology
As in other regions of the world, access to technology parallels the
disparity in lifestyles throughout the region. Some people are scarcely
aware of the Internet, while others make their living from it. Even so,
cheap, portable technologies are transforming the Middle East.
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A young woman pauses from shopping to talk on a cellular telephone in a Kuwaiti shop, c. 2000. [ enlarge ] |
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Cellular phones, for example, are increasingly popular in the Middle
East, providing telephone access in more remote communities as well as
in crowded urban areas. Wireless service bypasses the difficult and
expensive requirements for laying out and maintaining telephone cables.
Satellite television news stations like Al-Jazeera provide new and
varied sources of information to people in the Middle East who once had
access only to government-controlled media. The Internet may have a
similar effect.
Internet cafes have sprung up in major cities and in regional
centers throughout the Middle East, providing access to news and
information for people who cannot afford to buy a computer themselves.
In some nations, however, the government is the only Internet provider
and may censor the available content.
Oil-poor countries do not have the economic resources to take
advantage of these new technologies. The ability to access new
technology is related to both economic resources and political openness.
Back to top
Related sites
Gunning for Saddam: Saddam's Weapons of Mass Destruction:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/ shows/gunning/etc/arsenal.html
A summary of Iraq's development of biological and chemical weapons
All Things Considered: Islam on the Internet Three-Part Series Explores Intersection of Faith and Technology:
http://www.npr.org/programs/watc/cyberislam/
This NPR series explores the intersection of faith and technology.
Arabs and Astronomy:
http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic
An article on Muslim contributions to the fields of math and astronomy
Bedouin Women Discover Distance Learning:
http://www.undp.org/dpa/choices/2001/june/j14e.pdf
This article talks about addressing the digital divide with government-sponsored computer centers in Jordan.
Arab Information Project:
http://www.georgetown.edu/research/arabtech/
A look at the Information Revolution occuring in the Middle East
Arab Human Development Report 2002:
http://www.undp.org/rbas/ahdr/
A report on the Arab world's attempts to advance human development
Innovation:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/innoalgebra.html
Information on Muslim contributions to mathematics, engineering, astronomy, and medecine from the PBS special Islam: Empire of Faith.
Conflict:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/classroom/lp5.html
Students will explore the theme of conflict while examining Iraq's
use of biological and chemical weapons against the Kurdish people.
Great Thinkers and Accomplishments of Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the diverse accomplishments of great Islamic scholars.
Creating a Textile Museum Piece from the Islamic Empire:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the importance of the textile industry to
the strength and stability of the Islamic Empire in the 11th and 12th
centuries.
How Islam Won, and Lost, the Lead in Science:
http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins /Terror/islamic-science.html
Science in the Middle East from the 13th century to today
Related topics
Economics: It's More Than Oil
What role have natural resources played in the politics and economy of the Middle East?
Geography: An Ancient and Modern Crossroads
Related maps
Middle East Topographic and Natural Resources
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