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A Muslim Palestinian woman and her children prepare traditional foods in their home during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. |
� Annie Griffiths Belt/CORBIS |
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The many cultures of the Middle East
Culture, a shared set of traditions, belief systems, and behaviors,
is shaped by history, religion, ethnic identity, language, and
nationality, among other factors. The Middle East consists of
approximately 20 countries, with many different religions and a variety
of ethnic and linguistic groups. Given this diversity, we should not be
surprised to find a multitude of different cultures coexisting in the
region.
Stereotypes about the Middle East
During the 19th century, translations of the Arabian Nights
and archaeological discoveries in Egypt dominated the imaginations of
people in the West who had never visited the Middle East. These
armchair explorers conjured up competing images of a desert region
populated by nomads and camels and, of course, pyramids, but also
brimming with all manner of sweet and savory treats in bustling urban
bazaars. During the 20th century, stories about the Middle East have
tended to focus on oil wealth, territorial wars, and religious
conflicts. All of these do exist, but there is much more to life in
this area.
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A fruit vendor at a market in Alexandria, Egypt [ enlarge ] |
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Daily life in the region is too complex to be summarized on a Web
page; we can only begin to suggest the multiple variables involved in
the lives of people there. A common thread that runs through many lives
is the importance of family and the values that derive from having a
strong extended family: respect, honor, and loyalty.
Religion in the cultures of the Middle East
The Middle East is the birthplace of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all
monotheistic
religions that grew from the same tradition.
Each religion used the texts from earlier groups, and so they share
many rules and beliefs. For example, Islam and Judaism observe the same
dietary rules and have a similar focus on religion as a foundation for
civil law. All three share a tradition of prophets, from Adam and
Abraham to Solomon and Joseph. Jesus is significant for both
Christianity and Islam, and Muslims in addition follow the teachings of
Muhammad.
Religion plays a large part in the rhythm of daily life, not only
through prayer and study, but also in determining the end of the work
week. Shops in different neighborhoods close down on Fridays for the
Muslim holy day, Saturdays for the Jewish Sabbath, and Sundays for the
Christian day of rest. Religious festivals and remembrances, like Id
al-Fitr (the Festival of Fast-Breaking, celebrated at the end of
Ramadan), or the Jewish Passover holiday, or Easter Sunday as
determined by the Roman or Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, are all
recognized as national holidays in different countries.
An awareness of God (Arabic: Allah) is exhibited in common
Arabic expressions that are used throughout the region -- even in
Turkey and Iran, where Arabic is not the local language. A common
response to "How are you?" is "Ilhamdillah!" -- "Praise be to God." When expressing hope for a future event, one might say "Inshallah" -- "God willing." The exclamation "Mashallah"
-- "What God wills!" -- is often heard as an expression of delight, at
the sight of a new baby, for example. While there are those for whom
these phrases reflect the divine, others use them the way many English
speakers use "Good-bye" (literally, "God be with ye").
Religion plays a role in national and international politics as
well. Turkey has a Muslim majority, but is officially a secular nation.
Other countries in the region identify themselves with a specific
religion, mostly Islam. Lebanon's constitution attempted to provide for
power sharing among 18 officially recognized religions, including
Maronite
and
Orthodox Christians,
Sunni
and
Shii
Muslims, and
Druze.
But because the populations of the various
groups grew at different rates, this system eventually became less
representative of the nation as a whole and civil war broke out.
The poor relations between Israel and most of its Arab neighbors are
sometimes described in terms of a perpetual religious conflict between
Jews and Muslims. This reading, however, is too simplistic. Although
control over important historical sites of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam is a factor in the disagreements, many of the details
that stall negotiations have to do with control of land and access to
water resources. Furthermore, many Palestinians who demand restitution
for their property are Christian, not Muslim, and Egypt's historic
treaty with Israel provides a model for how Muslim and Jewish neighbors
can live peaceably.
Ethnic diversity at the crossroads of civilizations
Situated between Africa, Asia, and Europe, the Middle East has been
a crossroads for traders, travelers, and empire builders for thousands
of years. Africans, Central Asians, and Celts have all added to the
ethnic mix. Major ethnic groups in the Middle East today include Arabs,
Iranians (also known as Persians), Turks, Jews, Kurds, Berbers,
Armenians, Nubians, Azeris, and Greeks.
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Kurdish refugees in northern Iraq [ enlarge ] |
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Most of the countries in this region are multiethnic. But even as
diversity enhances the cultural richness of a society, it unfortunately
may also lead to political conflict. The Kurds, for example, do not
have their own nation-state, but are instead spread across Turkey,
Iraq, Iran, and Syria. Their political and military attempts to create
an autonomous Kurdistan have been strongly resisted by those states.
Many languages, three families
The multiplicity of languages spoken in the Middle East reflects its
ethnic diversity. Most of these languages come from three major
language "families":
- Semitic (including Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic)
- Indo-European (Kurdish, Persian, Armenian)
- Turkic (Turkish, Azeri)
These language families reflect the successive migrations of
different peoples into the region. A quick examination of these
languages reveals the influence they have had on each other. Persian,
for example, is written in Arabic script, while Turkish incorporates
vocabulary words from Persian and Arabic. Arabic itself is spoken in
regional dialectics that are not always mutually understood. Some
ethnic and religious communities have preserved "native" languages for
religious use, such as
Coptic
and Greek.
Culture: Family, city, and the globe
The family is an important part of culture in the Middle East, as is
evident in the Arabic honorific names that are often used in preference
to given names. A man may be called Ibn ("son of") followed by his father's name or Abu ("father of") followed by his child's name.
In traditional Arab societies the family unit is an extended family
-- cousins, grandparents, second cousins, cousins-in-law, nieces,
nephews, and more -- all living together. This remains true in rural
areas particularly. Migration to the cities has broken up some of these
extended families, and the number of people living only with their
nuclear family in urban areas is increasing.
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Tea drinkers at a caf� in Turkey [ enlarge ] |
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The difference between life in the village and life in the city
sometimes seems to be as great or greater than the difference between
living in the Middle East and living in America. Two men in Egypt, for
example, may share the same language (Arabic), religion (Islam), and
nationality (Egyptian), but one may live in an air-conditioned
apartment building with his wife and two children and wear a suit to
his government job, while the other may live in a naturally cool
mud-brick house surrounded by three generations of relatives and wear a
traditional robe, called a
galabiya,
to work a plot of land.
These differences are eroding, however, with the introduction of
inexpensive cellular phone service and the ubiquity of television. Even
some mud-brick houses are now equipped with satellite dishes that bring
news, entertainment, and fashions not only from the capital city, but
from around the world as well.
The Middle East in a globalized world
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A busy street in Cairo, Egypt [ enlarge ] |
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Over the past 200 years, and increasingly in the contemporary age of
globalization, more and more Western goods -- everything from clothing
to food to computers -- have appeared in Middle Eastern markets. Not
only goods, but culture as well, have been imported from the West.
Western books and movies are popular, especially (but not exclusively)
among the urban elite.
In fashion, Atat�rk, the founder of modern Turkey, banished the
fez
and other aspects of Ottoman dress in favor of
European three-piece suits. Today, one might see young people clad in
jeans and T-shirts that advertise their fondness for Britney Spears or Titanic walking down the same street as their peers who are wearing traditional
hijab
or galibiyas.
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Outside an Iranian McDonald's restaurant [ enlarge ] |
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There is an active debate in most Middle Eastern communities about
how much Western culture and technology can and should be adopted
before such influences begin to compromise their culture, traditions,
and identity. This discussion will require defining that identity to
some degree. Will they characterize themselves as Egyptian? Muslim?
Arab? a resident of a particular village? a member of a particular
tribe? Most importantly, in what order would they prioritize these
qualities? These are not easy questions, but the encroachment of
Western influences requires some answers.
Back to top
Related sites
Inside the Kingdom: Fatina Shaker:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/middle_east /saudi_arabia/saudi_shaker_full.html
A Saudi Arabian sociologist talks to NewsHour about women's issues, religion, and politics.
Life in Israel and the West Bank:
http://search.npr.org/cf/cmn/cmnpd01fm.cfm ?PrgDate=04/08/2002&PrgID=5
Talk of the Nation speaks with Palestinians and Israelis
about what life is like. Can kids go out and play? Can adults have
dinner with friends? How do people make it to religious services?
Fiesta Bowl:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/poems/jan -june01/middleeast_06-13.html
NewsHour presents poems from Israeli and Palestinian poets.
Fashion Slideshow:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/index.html
This slide show exhibits Iranian women wearing different kinds of veils.
Observing Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/religion/ july-dec01/islam_11-16.html
Islamic scholars discuss the future of Islam as Ramadan begins amid curiosity and concern. (Novemeber 2001)
Crescent and Star: Turkey Between Two Worlds:
http://freshair.npr.org/guestInfoFA.cfm?name=stephenkinzer
Writer Stephen Kinzer describes a country caught between the
entrenched ruling elite and its younger, well-educated population who
wants democracy.
Pari Zanganeh: Prima Folk/Opera Diva:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/iran/divas/zanganeh.html
Singer Pari Zanganeh speaks about women and music.
Beauty Shop Bop:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/iran/dispatches /beauty_video.html
This page links to streaming video of an Iranian beauty parlor and offers a clandestine peek underneath the veil.
Iranian Culture:
http://www.pbs.org/visavis/culture_mstr.html
Vis � Vis looks at Iran's rich traditions of cinema, literature, and music.
Religion & Culture:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/classroom/lp5.html
Students will consider the theme of religion and culture as they
learn about the Hindu-Muslim conflict in the province of Gujarat,
India.
Arab Americans: In the Aftermath of the Terrorist Attacks on the U.S.:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers /lessonplans/lifeafter911/arabamerican.html
Students will begin to understand who Arab Americans are, where
they come from, and the cultural diversity and complexity of what it
means to be Arab American.
Advertisers Tread Lightly:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers /lessonplans/october01/warads/index.html
Students will analyze how one national company responded to the
recent tragedy by incorporating special messages into its advertising.
Gender Issues in Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/teach/muslims/
Students will compare and contrast the roles of men and women with
regard to various topics in the six countries featured in the film.
Renaissance Man Comparison Poster:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson5.html
Students will learn about both the Sultan Suleyman (b. 1494 C.E.) and another Renaissance character and make comparisons.
Great Thinkers and Accomplishments of Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the diverse accomplishments of great Islamic scholars.
Creating a Textile Museum Piece from the Islamic Empire:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the importance of the textile industry to
the strength and stability of the Islamic Empire in the 11th and 12th
centuries.
A Woman's Place:
http://www.pbs.org/visavis/resources_mstr.html
Students will learn about women's status in Iran and the U.S.
across different points in history, explain why women in Iran dress and
interact with men in specific ways, and relate this to certain
groups/religions in the U.S., and adopt the perspective of a woman
living at a different time in the U.S. or Iran.
Tolerance in Times of Trial:
http://www.pbs.org/americaresponds/tolerance.html
Students will explore the problems inherent in assigning blame to
populations or nations of people. Students will also look at
contemporary examples of ethnic conflict, discrimination, and
stereotyping at home and abroad.
An Introduction to Islam and Muhammad:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson1.html
Students will compare the major monotheistic belief systems of the world.
Afghanland.com Web Site:
http://www.afghanland.com/home/home.html
A Web site on Afghan culture and politics
Related topics
Religion: Three Religions, One God
How were the modern nation-states of the Middle East created?
What role have natural resources played in the politics and economy of the Middle East?
Related maps
Historic Political Borders of the Middle East
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