Lipsitz's argument: 20th century wars (beginning with the Spanish-Am war) have tended to reinforce the link between americaness and whiteness-- by

1) defining the enemy in racial and racist terms "gooks, japs"

2) by maintaining (through the Korean war) segregated military units throughout the Armed Forces

3) by insisting that U.S. economic prosperity (the American way of life) requires U.S. military dominance over resource rich areas of Latin America, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East "War for oil"

4) by representing the quintessential American soldier as the (white) small town boy (Forrest Gump)
Alternative Argument can be made that 20th century wars have expanded the boundaries of citizenship beyond that offered by scientific racism and white supremacist narrative. In other words, the metaphor has shifted from ladder of races to melting pot… salad bowl… e pluribus unum

AD Council Campaign: E pluribus unum.  "I am an American"; loyalty to country (patriotism) not race becomes the key standard of citizenship. This narrative of patriotic mobilization creates a strategic opportunity for activists of color to make both the cultural and public policy claim that the nation must do a better job of protecting legal rights of those outside the boundaries of whiteness.

 

History of 20th century U.S. Wars

  Wwi—The NAACP urges blacks to join U.S. fight for democracy, in segregated units, in hopes of winning improvements in civil rights in return.  The result is bloody summer of race riots against returning black veterans.

Wwii-- double-v campaign—civil rights groups support the war effort while simultaneously demanding equal rights at home; the language of anti-fascism committed the U.S.  to policy of opposition racial or ethnic discrimination, still, African-americans and Japanese-americans (released from internment camps) fight in segregated units<o:p</o:p Korean war-- the beginning of unit desegregation.

Vietnam-- black g.i's oppose internal racism. Creates opportunities both for advancement. Racial discruptions lead to military commitment to internal integration and equal opportunities for advancement; as a result, the military now claims to be the "most integrated institution in the U.S."

Gulf War—Colin Powell, chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, first African-American military leader

 

Historically, war has provided minority groups the opportunity to make citizenship claims, both on the principles of universal rights and the concept of earned citizenship—"by demonstrating my loyalty and willingness to sacrifice for the nation I have the right to those privileges of citizenship"