Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 Reading 4 Reading 5

Reading 6 Reading 7 Reading 8 Reading 9

Caesar, De Bello Gallico: Druids I, Druids II, Druids III

Reading 1

Aeneas (face on bottom), carrying his father Anchises on his shoulders and household gods (Penates), leaves his destroyed fatherland, Troy and after a long and adventurous vayage, arrives to the shores of Italy.

Review topics: Interrogative adjective, Indirect question, Indirect Statement, Participles (Adjectival and Adverbial use of).

For the place of Aeneas in the foundation story of Rome, see p. 12 of the Penguin Historical Altas of Ancient Rome.

SENT 1
Aborigines: (SEM) literally, "those from the beginning"; Latinus' people.
ea: (SYN:mod) this demonstrative adjective modifies loca
tenebant = regebant
loca: (MORPH) this noun has neuter plural forms
SENT 2
cum...constitissent: (SYN:mod) this is a finite dependent adverbial clause of circumstance; see Summary of Syntax ¶19,22,23,23C.
instructae acies: (SEM) You need to have some knowledge of the structure of the Roman army, in order to visualize the "drawn up battle-lines that have taken up position". Look also at a cohort, consisting of six smaller units centuria, centuries, at a Roman general and at a common soldier (legionary).
autem: (DIS:conn) this is a sentence connector which contrasts the action of the first sentence with that of the second.
evocavit: (SYN:kernel) S is ø (=gapped) Latinus.
SENT 3
rogavit: (SYN:kernel) the subject here is gapped (ø). o What is the last mentioned subject?
qui mortales...exissent: (SYN:kernel) these three clauses are all indirect questions (see Summary of Syntax ¶28,29). qui here is an interrogative adjective, modifying mortales.
o quo is also an interrogative adjective; what is its nounhead?
casu, domo: (SYN:mod) these two ablative nouns are both adverbial modifiers of essent profecti. When translating ablative nouns without prepositions, it is necessary to supply prepositions in English. See Summary of Syntax ¶14h, 14j-o.
o Using the meanings of the ablative nouns to help you, decide which uses of the ablative casu and domo represent.

o What prepositions in English express these semantic notions?

quidve: (SYN:conn) -ve is a coordinating conjunction connecting two indirect questions. Like -que, -ve is attached to the end of the first word of the second item in the conjoined pair.
quaerentes: (SYN:kernel) this participle modifies the øSubject of exissent. See the kernel chart for this Reading for the structure of this clause. Although quid is the direct object of quaerentes, it must remain in first position in the clause when translating.
SENT 4
illi = the Trojans
responderunt: (SYN:kernel)
o What kind of information/structure do you expect after a verb with this meaning?
se: (SEM) the reflexive pronoun se refers to the subject of the governing verb, and it should be translated with the English pronoun appropriate to the subject. In this case, as the subject of responderunt is third person plural, use "they".
ducem suum Aenean: (SYN:kernel) this is a linking kernel with a øesse. Aenean is a Greek accusative form. (SEM) the reflexive possessive adjective suus a um has a general meaning of "belonging to subject"; as the subject in this case is third person plural, suum should be translated as "their". See the note on se above.
filium: (SYN:mod) in apposition with Aenean. Apposition is a syntactic structure in which two usually adjacent nouns having the same 'real world' referent stand in the same syntactical relation to the rest of a sentence, e.g., 'Rome, the capital of Italy, is on the Tiber River.'
cremata patria...quaerere: (SYN:kernel) this is a continuation of the indirect statement from the previous sentence. Read this in the following chunks: cremata patria \ domo profugos \ sedem condendaeque urbi locum \ quaerere.
profugos: (SYN:mod) this noun is in apposition to a gapped se.
condendae urbi: (MORPH/SYN: mod) "for founding a city;" condendae is a future passive participle used in a gerundive construction. In this instance it modifies urbi, a dative of purpose with locum. See Summary of Syntax ¶44f for an explanation of the gerundive construction.
SENT 5
et nobilitatem...admiratus: (SYN:conn) this participal clause contains two sets of coordinating conjunctions - et...et "both...and" and vel...vel "either...or".
o What are the Latin words which are the syntactic "sames" for each of these sets?

o What is the syntactic role that each pair has in common? Are they kernel items or modifiers?

admiratus: (MORPH) "having admired". This is a perfective deponent participle, which means it has a passive form but functions as an active verb, and is translated actively. See Summary of Syntax, ¶54.

dextra = dextra ømanu

Reading 2

Models of ancient siege machinery to help us picture the details of the war that Turnus was waging against Aeneas and his newly founded city, Lavinium.

KEY to Questions 1-7 related to Reading 2.

SENT 1: Itaque ibi coeperunt Troiani munire locum, quem Aeneas ex nomine uxoris suae, Latini regis filiae, quae iam ante desponsa Turno erat, Lavinium nominavit.
Filiae (SYN): Apposition to uxoris.
Latini (SYN): Genitive noun (adjectival modifier) to filiae
ante (SEM): (adverb) before
nominavit (SYN): what kind of a kernel does this verb represent?
quem (SYN): what is the syntactic function of the relative pronoun within its own clause?

SENT 2: At vero Amata, Latini regis uxor, cum indigne ferret Laviniam, repudiato Turno consobrino suo, Troiano advenae collocatam esse, Turnum ad arma concitavit.

vero (SEM): (adverb) truly
indigne fero (SEM): to bear with indignation, to resent. NOTE that the verb introduces an Indirect Statement. Translate accordingly.
Laviniam (SYN): what is the syntactic function of this word?
advenae (SYN): What is the function of advenae?

SENT 3: Isque mox, coacto Rutulorum exercitu, tetendit in agrum Laurentinum.
isque (SEM): the demonstrative pronoun is + the coordinating conjunction -que

cogo (SEM): what are the two possible meanings of cogo, ere, coegi, coactus ? Which is appropriate to use here?

SENT 4: Et Latinus, adversus eum pariter cum Aenea progressus inter proeliantes, circumventus est occisusque.
adversus SEM: preposition + eum (acc. of demonstrative pronoun is).
progressus (SEM): note that this is a deponent verb. How will that affect your translation?
circumventus est occisusque (MORPH): These are periphrastic forms (present perfective passive) of the verbs cicumvenio and occido, conjoined with -que. Read a gapped est with occisus.

SENT 5: Nec tamen, amisso socero, Aeneas Rutulis obsistere destitit, tandemque Turnum interemit.
obsistere destitit (SYN): desisto (stop) is a governing verb of a complementary infinitive (obsisto).
-que (SYN): connects the two main verbs obsistere destitit and interemit (interimo, ere, emi, emptus - kill)

SENT 6: Hostibus fusis fugatisque, victor Lavinium se cum suis recepit, consensuque omnium Latinorum rex declaratus est.
fusis (SEM): which of the two meanings of fundo is more appropriate to use in this context?
Latinorum (SYN): What is the function of this word?
declaratus est (SYN): What kind of a kernel does this verb form?

Reading 3

Vestal virgin, one of the six priestesses of Vesta, goddes of the hearth. The Vestals, who were not allowed to marry during their term of priesthood, were guardians of the eternal flame in the hearth of the state at the temple of Vesta, lined with statues of Vestal virgins. According to legend, Rhea Sylvia, forced to become a Vestal Virgin by her uncle, Amulius, was raped by Mars, the god of war and gave birth to Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome.

Review topics: Factitive kernel; Gerundive; Adverbial purpose clause, Causal quod-clause; Clause of comparison (Sum.Syn 84); Gapping. New topic: Connecting relative.

Vocabulary list.

SENT 1:
annuis vicibus (SYN): adv. modifier of habendum, ablative of means.
SENT 2
The sentence contains two purpose clauses, in both of which the subject is gapped. In the first ut-clause the gapped subject is Amulius, in the second - Rhea Sylvia.
SENT 3
Quae (SYN) this is the first in a series of connecting relative. Translate as a demonstrative pronoun: she.
SENT 4:
parvulos: SYN substantivized adjective; you need to supply a head
SENT 5:
in sicco SYN: substantivized adjective.
SENT 6
vagitum (SEM) a noun expressing action (crying)
SENT 6
coniugi (SYN): appositive to Acca Laurentia
SENT 7
avo SYN: appositive, dative of reference
victor SYN: a noun, appositive to Romulus. It is modified by augurio, ablat. of description or quality (Sum. of Syntax 54), the only instance where an Ablative is an adjectival modifier.
quod SYN: introduces a causal clause, consisting of two parallel parts (AB AB) with a shared element vultures viderat.
SENT 8
ut SYN purpose clause
potius MORPH comparative adverb
quam SYN introduces a clause of comparison with a gapped subject and verb. What are the gapped kernel items ?
ne SYN introduces a negative indirect command.
quis MORPH nom. m. sg. of the indefinite pronoun aliquis, a, id (aliqui, a, od). Here the ali- has been suppressed which always happens after the subordinating conjunctions num, si, nisi, ne.
fertur SEM here the verb means say. Remus is subject and occisus esse is a complimentary infinitive.

Reading 4

An Etruscan statue of the she-wolf in the Capitoline museum in Rome, ca. 500 B.C. (the suckling Romulus and Remus are Renaissance additions) A reconstruction of a panel on the Altar of Peace (Ara Pacis) of the Augustan age (1 C.E.) also shows the twins suckling at the she-wolf. A Shrine in Ostia shows the twins found by the she-wolf.

Review topics: Result clauses (LFR L33); Indirect statement (LFR L.23; Indirect Command (LFR.L31); Subjunctive in Independent Clauses (LFR L 29); Adverbial Clauses (LFR L.14)

For additional helpful hints, go to the text database of the Elementary Latin program (Reading 2)
VOCABULARY LIST

SENT. 1
abstulerit (from aufero) SYN: the gapped subject of the clause is tempestas
contioni SYN: Dative of diasdvantage, modifies abstulerit (from the assembly)
nec SEM: = neque, and not
fuit SEM: this is an intransitive existential use of sum. In this case it is not part of a linking kernel.

SENT. 2
viderunt SYN: you have to recover the gapped subject of this dependent verb from the main clause again, see abstulerit.
credebant SYN: at what point are you certain that you have a an indirect statement following this verb?

SENT 3
The subject of the second "inquit" is NOT Proculus Iulius, but Romulus who talks to Proculus in his dream.

SENT 4
abi, nuntia MORPH: these are singular active imperative forms from abeo and nuntio.
hoc SYN: this neuter singular pronoun is explained by the ut- noun clause that follows. It functions as a direct object to velle, as the ut-noun clause does.
armis Romanis SYN: Dative object of special intransitive kernel (Copy down from Summary of Syntax other verbs that govern dative objects)

Reading 5

Tarquin, the last king of Rome was worried (for a good reason, as it turned out) about who will succeed him, so he sent his sons and his nephew all the way from Rome to the famous oracle of Delphi in Phocis (Greece), a significant journey back then. The theater came about because many people would always gather at Delphi, a sanctuary and oracle with an international reputation.

For additional help with syntax, go to the text-database of the Elementary Latin program.
Vocabulary

Delphos: (SYN:mod) adverbial accusative of place to which;
ad consulendum oraculum: (SYN:mod) ad + gerundive expresses purpose.
Titus et Arruns: (DISC:refer) according to the first sentence, who are these people?
iis: (/MORPH/DISC:refer) variant of eis. To whom or what does it refer?
L. Iunius Brutus (SYN:mod) this noun is in apposition to comes, meaning that both words refer to the same real-world entity.
ventum est: (SYN:kernel) for help with this impersonal passive verb, see course-pack.
Delphos: (SYN:mod) given that this word occurs in a passive kernel, what use of the accusative does it represent?
quaerendi: (SYN:mod) what is the nounhead for this genitive gerund?
ad quem...esset venturum: (SYN:kernel) indirect question; direct object of quaerendi.
ad quem eorum: (SYN:mod) eorum is a partitive genitive with quem "to which of them".
redditam øesse: (SYN:kernel) when in the sentence do you realize that redditam should be read as an infinitive and not as a participle?

dicunt: (DISC/SYN:kernel) the gapped subject of this verb is a non-specific "they", meaning the people who pass on the story.
imperium: (SYN:kernel) when in the sentence do you know the syntactic function of this ambiguous form? Explain your reasoning.
vestrum: (MORPH/SYN:mod) this is the genitive plural form of vos used for the partitive genitive; see ad quem eorum above.
tulerit = dederit
Tarquinii: (DISC:refer) "the Tarquinians", that is, Titus and Arruns.
uter: (SYN:kernel) o what expectation is raised by this interrogative pronoun?
ratus: (MORPH/SYN:kernel) perfective deponent participle from reor reri ratus "think".
What expectation is raised by a verb of the head?

quasi: (SYN:kernel/mod) subordinating conj "as if", introduces an adverbial clause of comparison.
quod: (SYN:kernel/mod) introduces a causal clause.
ea: (DISC:refer) o to whom or what does this pronoun refer?

SENT 1
in contubernio (SEM): in the tent-party. In order to understand what a tent-party is, you need to be familiar with the structure of the Roman army
consobrino (SYN) : Ablat. of origin (from)
SENT 2
unus quisque (MORPH): indefinite pronoun, each one, every one
placuit (SYN) impersonal verb, part of a special intransitive kernel with eis (dative object)
SENT 5
Collatia (SEM) name of a town
SENT 7
What kernel type is this ?
SENT 8
ad quam corrumpendam (SYN): the pronoun is a connecting relative.
noctu (SYN) Abl. of time
iure (SYN) Abl. of means
domum (SYN): What kind of accusative is this? What is the basis of your decision?
irrumpens (SYN) What is the noun-head ?
SENT 11
ope (SYN) Abl. of means
SENT12
Roma (SYN) Abl. of separation, place from where
tempus exigo (SEM): spend time. To what stem is exigo related?
SENT 13
What kernel type is the main clause in this sentenence?

Reading 8

Equites, cavalrymen from eques,itis m. This is a modern reconstruction. You can look at an actual mask and a parade mask, worn by a Roman cavalryman.

Review topics:

On the Punic wars, see the Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome, pp. 15-17, 24-25. See also the plan of the battle of Cannae on p. 25. See p. 24 for what is believed to be a picture of a bust of Hannibal.
Hannibali victori : (SYN:mod)
o A dative object to suadeo. Add to the list of verbs that require a Special Intransitive kernel (p. 8 in Sum of Syntax) Another good example of a Special intransitive kernel! Dative objects are kernel items. This is why victori is bolded in the bracketed version of your coursepack, which means that Hannibali is perceived as an apposition. Of course, one could have done it the other way around as well.
ceteri : (SYN:kern)
o What case is this? Note that it is bolded in the bracketed version of the text in the course-pack. It means that this is a kernel item.
suadebant : (SYN:kern)
o What is the direct object of this transitive verb?
quietem et ipse sibi sumeret et fessis daret militibus: an example of parallelism (with the parallel items after each "et").
o Label the A, B, and C (common) elements
sibi, militibus: (SYN:mod)
o What use of the dative case are these?
praefectus: (SYN:mod) from praeficio. Here, it functions as a noun describing a military rank.
equitum: (SYN:mod) i.e., Hannibal's cavalry.
MORPH: What case is this noun in ?
cessandum esse: (SYN:kern) a passive periphrastic.
o What use of the infinitive does it represent?
ut scias: (SYN:mod)
o What kind of ut clause is this? A common feature of Latin word-order: this dependent clause purpose comes before its main clause.
o What clause is this ut clause dependent upon?
quid hac pugna sit actum: (SYN:kern) indirect question after scias.
sit actum: (SEM) a good meaning for ago in this context is "to accomplish." I leave it to you to figure out the form I.D. of this verb.
victor: (SYN:mod) appositive describing the subject of epulaberis.
epulaberis: (MORPH)
o What tense is this?
sequere: (MORPH) imperative form.
ut Romani te prius venisse quam venturum esse sciant
o Again, this dependent purpose clause comes before its main clause.
Where does the indirect statement within this ut--clause begin and end? It may help to note that the main verb, upon which the indirect statement depends, follows the indirect statment, the dependent clause.
prius . . . quam: translate as one word together with quam, as before. The quam introduces a clause of comparison within the indirect statement and sets up another parallel structure.
venisse, venturum esse: (SYN:kern) note the different tenses of these infinitives
sciant = credant. The verb that triggers the I.S.
praecedam: (SYN:kern) this form could be either future imperfective indicative or present imperfective subjunctive; give a translation for each possibility
ad consilium pensandum: (SYN:morph) see ad + gerundive in the Summary of Syntax.
opus esse: (SEM) opus est + ablative means "there is need of abl noun ".
eidem: (MORPH)
o What case is this in? Check out idem, eadem, idem (another demonstrative pronoun, meaning same) in the Summary of Morhology.
dedere = dederunt; variant form of the third person plural pres perf act ending -erunt
vincere scis . . . victoria uti nescis: another parallel structure.
uti: (SYN:kern)
o This is the infinitive of utor, uti, usus sum - use
o What case does that verb take for its object? Go to page 8 in Summary of Syntax again to learn about Ablative objects. Victoria, which is here in the ablative goes on the kernel chart!
diei: (SYN:mod)
o What case is this?
creditur: (SYN:kern) sets up an indirect statement.
saluti: (SYN:mod) Dative complement in a Special Linking kernel (See the Summary of Syntax p. 10).
urbi atque imperio: datives of reference or advantage. Together with saluti they form a double dative.
imperio (SEM) used here in the sense of the future "empire" that the Punic wars cleared the way for (in the author's opinion) rather than the power of higher Roman magistrates.

Reading 9

All public inscriptions contained the well-known abbreviation SPQR (Senatus Popolusque Romanus), as did this military standard, bearing the main symbols of Rome. However, in 133-122 B.C. the senate and the people did not present such a united front as the symbol of SPQR implies. The severe disagreements over the distribution of land led to riots and eventually to the assasination of the tribunes of the people, the Gracchi (Tiberius in this text) and later Gaius. You will see the SPQR on all public inscriptions, if you visit Rome, e.g. on the Arch of Titus.

Review topics:

For a detailed syntactic commentary on this text click here.

See the Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome, pp. 17-18 for the Gracchi and public land. Learn more about the social classes in Rome.

P. Africani ex filia nepos: (SEM) "grandson (nepos) of Publius Africanus (P. Africani) by his daughter (ex filia)".

creatus: (SYN:kernel) the passive of creare can be linking. See Summary of Syntax ¶5.

abrogavit: (SYN:kernel/mod) abrogare means "to deprive someone (in the dative) of something (in the accusative)".

agris dividendis: (SYN:mod) for gerundive construction, see Summary of Syntax ¶44f; this is a dative of purpose which is adverbial rather than kernel.

creavit: (SYN:kernel) creare in the active voice can be factitive (see Summary of Syntax ¶7).

cum: (SYN:mod) introduces an adverbial clause of concession; see Summary of Syntax ¶23d.

o Concession involves an inherent contradiction between the information in the dependent clause and that in the governing clause. What contradictory information is given in this sentence makes it necessary to interpret this cum as concessive?

Capitolii: for the location of the Capitoline hill, see the map in the Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome, p. 21.

hortatus est: (SEM/SYN:kernel)

o What semantic category does this verb belong to?

o What syntactic expectation does it raise?

eos qui: (SYN:mod) this is a cataphoric (carrying forward) use of the pronoun eos. Rather than referring back to something previously mentioned (the more frequent anaphoric use), in this case eos is defined by the relative clause which follows. Translate as "those who...".

irruere: (MORPH) = irruerunt; this is a variant form of the 3rd pl present perfective act indic.

in Gracchum: (SEM) in + acc of a person often means "against" or "toward".

hoc: (SYN:kernel) pronoun, not adjective.

o What does it refer to?

Caesar, De Bello Gallico: Druids I: Education of the Druids.

Caesar spent 10 years between 59 and 49 B.C. conquering the Gauls and while in Gaul (modern France), he studied the customs and religious practices of the various tribes there. In this passage he talks about the priestly class of the Gauls, called druids: their education, beliefs and the practice of human sacrifice which they performed on behalf of their communities or private individuals.

For a word by word commentary and translation of this text, click here.

Give the noun-head of the following adjectival modifiers:
versuum

reliquis (last sentence)

publicis

Graecis

Exlain the difference between the infinitives fas esse and mandare. What are the contextual clues that alert you to the two different syntactic functions that these infinitives fulfill in the sentence.

What is the form I.D. of utantur and why is it in this form?

Caesar, De bello Gallico, Druids II: What kind of an education did you get in Druid-school?

Relief of master and pupils from side of family tomb monument from Neumagen--detail of man reading third century CE Trier, Landesmuseum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1988

For a word by word commentary and translation of this text, click here.

Review topics: Objective infinitive; Noun-result clause; Gerund. New topic: Semi-deponents.

Comprehension questions:

Discuss the role of linear processing and word order in detemining the difference in function between the infinitives persuadere and interire in Sentence 2.

Circle all coordinating conjunctions and put numbers above the syntactic sames that they conjoin. Enter them on Coordinating Conjunction Worksheet.

For a series of syntax drills realted to this readings, click here.

Reading 3 Roma Condita

Verbs Relinquo, ere, liqui, relictus &endash; leave Privo,are,avi,a tum deprive + ablat. of separation Praeficio, ere, feci, fectus (FAC/FACT) &endash; appoint, put in charge of Comprimo, ere, pressi, pressus &endash; to rape (PREM/PRESS) Edo,ere,didi,ditus (DA/DAT) produce, bring forth Compingo,ere,egi,pactus &endash; to fasten up, join together Abicio, ere, abieci, abiectus (IAC/IACT) throw away Accurro (CUR/CURS) = ad+curro, ere, cucurri, cursurus &endash; run to Alo,ere,ui, altum (alitum) &endash; feed Colligo, ere, egi, collectus (LEG/LECT) collect Restituo, ere, ui, ututus (STA/STAT) restore Contraho,ere, traxi, tractus ( TRA/TRACT) draw together Transilio,ire, sului to jump over (salio,ui to leap) Fertur (imps) is said. Fero means not just carry, but also say

Nouns Vicis, is f &endash; alternation turn Annuis vicibus &endash; abl of means, modifying habendum Suboles,is f offspring Sacerdos, otis m,f priest Vinculum, I, n chain Vagitus,us m &endash; crying screaming Lipa,ae, f she-wolf Uber,is n udder (adj) fertile coniunx, gis f m spouse avus,i m grandfather civitas,atis f = urbs augurium,ii n interpretation of omens, divination, prophecy vultur, uris m vulture moenia, ium n.pl. walls (cf. Munio,ire fortify)

Adjectives
Parvus,a,um &endash; small
Parvulus,a, um (diminutive) small
Siccus,a,um &endash; dry

Vocabulary from Reading 4

Verbs aufero, auferre, abstuli, ablatus - take away from +dat. (FER/TUL/LAT) tego,ere,texi,tectus cover, hide redeo,ii,itum &endash;return (E/I/IT) credo,ere,didi, ditus &endash;believe rapio,ere,ui, raptus &endash; grab (RAP/RAPT) inquit (defective verb) he says nuntio,are, avi, atus &endash;announce colo,ere,ui,cultus cultivate, worship (COL/CULT) scio,ire, ivi, itum - know resisto, ere, stiti resist (STA/STAT) volo,velle, volui -want

Nouns/ pronouns conspectus,us m appearance contio, onis, f popular assembly rex,regis m king conspectus,us m appearance tempestas,atis f storm lux,cis f light sedes,is f seat orbis,is f circle caput,itis n head ops,is f help, power (do not confuse with opus,eris, n work) arma, orum n. pl. weapons

Indeclinables Subito (adv.) suddenly Tam (adv) so !!!! do not confuse with Tum (adv) then deinde (adv) then, thereafter postquam (subord. conj) after igitur (adv) discourse connector, therefore

Adjectives: regius,a,um &endash; royal tantus,a,um &endash; such nullus,a,um &endash; no, none

Required stems: SCAND/SCEND; E/I/IT; COL/CULT; STA/STAT; SPEC/SPECT; SED/SID; FER/TUL/LAT, RAP/RAPT

Reading #5
Semantic group "resolve"
Statuo, uere, ui, utus (STA/STAT)&endash; decide
Constituo,uere,ui,utus - decide
Deponents:
Nascor, sci, natus sum = gigno,ere, ui, genitus
Labor,labi, lapsus sum (LAB/LAPS) = prolabor slip, fall down
Proficiscor, sci, profectus sum &endash; set out
Reor, ratus sum &endash; to think
Other Verbs:
Conficio, ere, feci, fectus (FAC/FACT) accomplish fully
Incedo (CED/CESS) enter, move in
Incido, ere, di, casum (CAD/CAS) fall in
Nouns derived from verbs: cupido, inis f desire (cupio,ire, ivi, itus)
Pronouns:
Demonstratives: Ille, ipse
Possessive vester ( meus, tuus, suus; noster, vester, suus)
Interrogative uter &endash; which (of two things)
Personal: ego, vos,
Semantic group: People
Soror,is f sister
Iuvenis, is m young man
Filius,ii m son
Mater,tris f mother
Indeclinables:
Sic (adv) so
Antea (adv) before
Iam (adv) already
Itaque (adv) = ita, so
Quasi (sub. Conj) as if
Postquam (sub.conj)
Priusquam (sub.conj)
Inter + acc.( preposition) amongst
Adjectives:
Alius,a,ud other, aonther
Prior (comp of primus)
Communis,e common
Summus, a, um highest