The Viking Expeditions from Central Sweden (700-1000):
The Causes and Effects that the Expeditions and Viking Culture
Had on Each Other.
- Contents:
- Chapter 3: Contributing
factors for the expeditions.
- Chapter 4: Effects that the
Expeditions had on the Svear.
- 3.3: Culture and Population, The
expeditions from the Nordic regions during the Viking age have been
explained by a variety of theories put forth by scholars. Many of
these sources appear to fail to take into account much that
occurred prior to the Viking age. While these expeditions from the
different Nordic regions all had similar characteristics, the
expeditions from central Sweden had a rather different nature, and
therefore rather different causes.
Although raiding, exploration, settlement, and expansion of trade
are the first obvious reasons that spring to mind, other ideas,
such as different types of increased population pressure could have
also provided a push from within. These expeditions are generally
attributed to factors such as the lure of gaining wealth, social
standing, or new territories to settle.
Climate and geographical location, more than anything else, seem to
have been an influence over the destinations of travelers from
central Sweden.
Geographic isolation, relative to western and northern Europe and
southern Scandinavia, provided the inhabitants with protection from
the unrest of those regions and provided access to regions away
from Europe. Several barriers to large scale travel over land
during the Viking age shielded the Mälar region from invaders
by land and distance and well armed societies to the south provided
barriers along the coast. Across the Baltic, the people lacked the
boat building skills, among others, to launch expeditions to
central Sweden. Thus, aside from their immediately neighboring
groups, the region of the Mälar valley was reasonably shielded
from invaders.
Geographical barriers acted as territorial borders for the people
before modern machinery. The Svear were far away from most of the
populations in Europe and the rest of Scandinavia, and it was this
intervening distance and wilderness that isolated them from the
influence of continental Europe. The regions in north were hard to
travel through, particularly the fells to the northwest, because of
the terrain and the special skills required to get food and survive
in the cold. Overland routes between central and southern Sweden
went through the intervening thick forests. These sufficed as trade
routes, but they were not a practical way to bring invading forces,
which required a lot of food which was usually taken from local
populations. Lastly, and very importantly, the Mälar river
opened up through a maze of islands into the Baltic and was very
difficult to navigate through. Because travel through these regions
was difficult and food was not plentiful, these regions acted as a
defense to central Sweden from invaders.
The waterways in Sweden are connected in such a way to make access
to the Baltic by boat easy from the territories of the Svear.
However, it was not as easy for the Svear to travel south, as this
would have to be done along the open coast. This also meant that it
was difficult for the Danes and Norwegians to reach the territories
near the Svear. A diagram 10,
shows groupings of people around the Baltic, based on the genetic
similarities to one another. On the Scandinavia peninsula, the
divisions on the diagram run parallel to the major rivers,
indicating that coastal travel was probably the primary way to
travel north and south. It appears that waterways were the primary
routes of travel north and south. This limited territorial
expansion to along the coast and inland regions along the rivers.
The forests acted as a barrier to travel, causing people to travel
along the coasts and rivers. Although people traveled via trails,
lakes, and rivers from Gotland to Svealand the thick forests
separated the regions. The rivers in central Sweden generally flow
from the northwest to the southeast and empty into the Baltic or
the Gulf of Bothnia, whereas those in the south tend to flow from
the north to the south. If these rivers had inland connections,
then they would have provided a means for north and south travel
other than along the coast. However, the rivers and water ways in
the center of Sweden have very few inland connections to those in
the southern regions of Sweden. Because of this, travel north and
south could only be done along the coast. Thus, the occupants
central Sweden had easier access to the lands along the shores of
the Baltic than the did to those in Norway or the West coast of
Sweden. Although it was possible to travel from central Sweden to
Norway and Denmark through the Baltic, such a route required
traveling great distances through open sea and through the
territories of the Goths, Danes, and others. Conversely, if the
Danes or Goths traveled east or north in the Baltic, they also had
to travel great distances through occupied lands to get there.
Thus, geographical features influenced the Svear to travel in the
Baltic rather than the North Sea or the Atlantic.
A region is overpopulated if all of the food that it can produce
is needed to support the existing population. The length of the
growing season determines how many people can be supported by a
particular region. At the northern limit for the successful growth
of most crops, farming was possible, but not easy nor successful
every year. A seven month growing season, which can be found as far
north as Uppsala, Sweden, is long enough to allow a large enough
variety of crops to make farming an appealing way of life. However,
a five month growing season which is found near
Östersund, Sweden (Mead 1958
: 148) is short enough to be the northern limit for many of
Europe's staple crops, such as wheat and rye. This is already too
far north for most other crops, including grains and many of the
fruits and vegetables that are cultivated in central Europe. Even
the south central region in Sweden, which is now called Dalarna,
growth of vegetation was so slow that cows had to be fed in summer
pastures away from the main farm, even into this century. Thus, it
appears that the Mälar valley is near the northern most limits
of crop farming. Further north, conditions become too difficult to
allow farming as a sole means of support, especially without modern
equipment and crops. Assuming that a large population must have a
large supply of food nearby, the northern limit for a large
population would also the northern limit for most crops. The
Mälar valley is far enough south that crops can be grown
there, but it is also far enough north that the harvest will always
be large enough to feed the population. Thus, it is likely that the
Svear had occasional food shortages, but not necessarily famine, in
the Mälar valley.
Although the Baltic Sea was a source of food for the Scandinavian,
it was not as rich as the North Sea.
Geographically, the Baltic was cut off from the Atlantic Ocean
for a period of time after end of the last ice age, when the land
rose for a while. At that time, the Baltic became a great,
freshwater lake that drained through the Svea and Göta rivers
over what is now Lake Vännern, in Sweden. (Sømme 36-38) Later, the
Baltic drained through the Dana river which went between what is
now Fyn and Sjaelland in Denmark. Sjaelland was connected to
Skåne at that time. Since then the water
levels have changed quite a bit, even in recent
centuries 11 (Mead 1958). The change from salt water to
fresh water and then back again must have affected the fish. To
this day the, Baltic has much fewer varieties and quantities of
fish than the North Sea and also lacks a particular species of
aquatic worm that commonly eats wood submerged in the ocean. While
these are good conditions for the preservation of sunken ships, it
must have made fishing a common way of life for those living in
central Sweden a thousand years ago, compared to Norway or Denmark
where fish was more plentiful.
The regions to the southwest were already occupied by cultures
similar enough to the Svear that they would be in direct
competition with each other. Since it was difficult, dangerous, and
expensive to pass through foreign lands, it was best to do so only
if the reward outweighed the penalty. Aside from the weather and
the elements making trips dangerous, hostile groups had to be dealt
with. Making treaties was risky and expensive, although often
better than having to battle with an overwhelming opposition.
Making treaties was expensive in that it often required the
exchange of material wealth and or promises that had to be
fulfilled, both of which cost time. Time was an important factor
due to the harsh winter weather. However, even with treaties, the
leaders or people could change their minds and attack suddenly. So
it was best to reduce the amount of foreign territory traveled
through to a profitable minimum.
Except for central Sweden, nearly all of the Scandinavian
peninsula and Denmark had access to the North Sea, the Norwegian
Sea, and the Barents Sea. Significantly, the others had access to
the resources of the Atlantic, such as prime fishing regions and
central and southern Europe, whereas the Svear did not. This meant
that the Svear could not. The waterways of central Sweden provided
access only to the Baltic and the relatively unpopulated regions
north and inland. This meant that while it was difficult for the
Svear to reach England, Ireland, France, and other regions on
continental Europe, it was relatively easy for them to travel to
and from the Baltic regions that are now called Åland,
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Russia.
Sea access to the different regions on the Scandinavian peninsula
is the result of the combination of the effects of the glaciers and
the climate. Sea access influences how much the inhabitants could
travel by water, prior to recent centuries. For example, the coast
of Norway is kept clear of ice during the winter by relatively warm
ocean currents that travel north along its coast. However, although
Sweden and Finland have many rivers leading to the Baltic Sea and
the Gulf of Bothnia, there are no such warm currents there such as
those near Norway. So ice becomes a problem along the east coast in
Sweden. For example, the Gulf of Bothnia is usually
closed off by ice more than 3 months each winter during this
century (Mead 1958 : 60). Also,
while it may be possible to travel over the ice between Umeå,
Sweden and Vaasa, Finland, Umeå is closed in by ice almost
half of the year, much like the northern parts of the Great Lakes
bordering U.S.A. and Canada. Further south in Sweden, Gävle is
closed in for about a quarter of the year (Mead 1958 : 60). Below the 60th parallel,
which is just a little south of the Åland islands, ice is a
problem only about three months of the year, but it is not usually
enough of a problem to force the seaports to close during winter.
Additionally, it may have been possible to travel over the ice
during the winters between what are now Uppland in Sweden and the
south west end of Finland via Åland. Although the average
temperature at the end of the Iron age in Scandinavia is thought to
have been slightly warmer than it is now, the Gulf of Bothnia was
probably not navigable during enough of the winter months compared
to regions only slightly further south, such as Stockholm, Sweden
where ship travel is possible year round through light ice in the
winter. Thus, the Mälar valley is Sweden's northernmost major
waterway with year round accessibility to the Baltic Sea with
possible travel over the ice to Åland and Finland during the
winters.
The climate and terrain of the Mälar valley permitted a large
population to be supported by agriculture. At the northern limit
for the successful growth of most crops, farming was possible, but
not easy nor successful every year. Additionally, the locations of
discovered grave sites suggests sporadic
settlement 12 in this region. This sporadic
settlement could imply that far less land was considered arable
using Iron age technology than with today's technology. If the
climate had been more conducive to larger harvests, for example,
like the long growing seasons in southern Europe, then farming
alone could have been such a sustaining lifestyle that the need to
travel elsewhere would have been greatly reduced. It appears that
central Sweden may have been able to produce a larger population
than it could be consistently supported in the region, and thus,
created a pressure to for the excess population to seek other
regions to settle.
Three technologies and an abundance of key resources made
successful travel possible for the Svear. These technologies were
the skills of boat building, iron working and production, and
organization. The Svear's primary resources during the Viking age
were man power, iron and timber, and, to a lesser extent, luxury
goods.
The museums of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark have extensive exhibits
on the Viking age boats. This type of boat, the same type that the
Svear used, was so superior to those of the other cultures at the
time that they are still a source of pride for the Scandinavians.
The association of the Scandinavians with boats has been a long
one. In the 2nd century, Tacitus described the
Svear as being powerful not only in arms and men, but in fleets as
well (Jones 24), showing an early
talent with ships. Building a Viking style boat not only required
the resources of trees and iron, but a high degree of skill. The
planks were cut in varying thicknesses, to provide strength in the
appropriate places while saving weight in the others. Merchant ships were often light enough to be carried (Jones 253). The notches in the
planking were cut so skillfully that the boards fit together nearly
flush. The notches were fastened together with iron rivets, which
were stronger and caused less drag against the water than lashing
the planks together, as was done before iron. Water resistance was
further reduced by the boats having a prow on each end. The ships
were steered by a rudder that was fastened on one side of the ship
to give greater stability than a centered rudder. The decreased
water resistance and the addition of a sail were important factors
in extending the range of long distance travel. The boats were wide
relative to their depth to give them stability and enable them to
travel in the shallow water of rivers. The
studies at the town of Birka in the Mälar valley show that
the water has been retreating from the shore over time (Ambrosiani : 31). If the water levels
in Swedish rivers dropped also, this probably made being able to
travel in shallow water a necessity to reach some communities.
Because boat travel was such a large part of the culture in central
Sweden, it is no surprise that they were used to explore more
distant regions around the Baltic.
Iron probably contributed significantly to the development of
population pressure and warfare in central Sweden. Iron products
enabled more to get done, because they were more durable than the
bronze ones. Thus an individual with iron tools could harvest more
crops, thus supporting a larger population in a region. A high
enough population density puts a strain on the region's resources,
particularly food. In a region with relatively limited resources,
such as the Mälar valley, a well fed population could quickly
outgrow the local food supply within several generations. This was
of special importance in these regions where a good harvest was not
always possible. Increased warfare may not have reduced the
population as much as it deterred individuals and small groups from
relocating to less crowded areas near by.
Iron ore and timber were abundant in Sweden and the Svear were
able to utilize these resources. Swedish ore was collected to such
an extent by the Viking age inhabitants of central Sweden that the
distribution of the remains of furnaces that the they used to smelt
ore were scattered throughout the ore bearing regions of Sweden.
Although the highest concentrations and largest amounts of iron ore
were in southern Sweden, large regions in northern
Svealand 13 and southern Norrland had a lot
of ore. Iron products were good merchandise for trade because they
were in high demand. Additionally iron increased the efficiency of
the boats by making them stronger and allowing for a more
hydrodynamic design. The iron tools allowed the planking to be cut
with greater precision. They were not only made stronger by
fastening the overlapping planks with iron rivets, they were made
faster. Previously the planks had been fastened by threading strips
through rows of holes bored through adjoining planks. These holes
and the protruding lashings created a rough surface causing a lot
of drag against the water. The rivets were much smaller and needed
fewer holes because fewer of them were needed to keep the boat
together. With the resulting smoother surface, the iron reinforced
boats could move faster with less effort than the older style. Even
after the addition of the sail to the Swedish boats, oars were used
to maneuver the boat in rivers. The abundance of timber allowed the
construction of tools, buildings, boats, fences, and bridges, and
was most importantly a reliable source of fuel. In regards to the
Viking expeditions, the fuel and boats were the most important. The
fuel allowed iron production. The boats allowed travel and
transportation.
Organization was another resource that the Svear had in abundance.
Iron production, boat building, and sailing all required group
organization and planning. Particularly boat building and sailing,
which required great coordination of effort within a group. The Svear, like other Scandinavian cultures, also had an
organized system of laws and met in more or less organized
assemblies. Even as early as the second century, the Swedes were
noted for their highly organized infantry (Tacitus 106), which later manifested as
a form of amphibious infantry during the Viking period. This high
level of organization allowed relatively small groups of people to
travel great distances through wilderness and often hostile
territory to trade or make highly successful attacks.
Luxury goods such as slaves, wax, and furs brought high prices in
the eastern markets. The Swedes were able to acquire these
relatively easily in nearby territories. The Swedes were able to
capture or trade slaves in small numbers around the Baltic,
particularly in the Slavic regions, on their way home or on their
way to Byzantium or Islam. Lighter skinned slaves were relatively
uncommon and brought a higher price in the southern markets. These
slaves were traded for with the other Viking groups that had
captured them. More commonly, the Svear captured slaves in raids on
the regions around the Baltic, not occasionally on the way to
market. Some of the treaties recorded between the Svear and the
Byzantine Emperor state that the Svear may not take slaves
The Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity was well established
in Constantinople by this time. This combined with the wealth of
the local rulers, probably created market for the
imported wax for candles for the churches and palaces. (Davidson 1976 : 1 04-105) Tallow
candles were dirty and smelly, and probably a sign of poverty, so
it is likely that those that could afford to, bought wax candles
instead. Since Constantinople was a large trade center and the head
of an empire, it was likely that many could afford luxury goods.
Even today, honey is collected by gathering the beeswax in which
the bees have stored their honey, a lot of wax and honey must have
been acquired together. According to accounts of the customs of the
Scandinavians during the Viking age, they consumed large amounts of
mead daily, and larger amounts as part of ceremonies. Mead is
fermented beverage made primarily from honey. A lot of wax was sold
by the Svear in the southern markets. This could have been an end
in itself, or it could have been related to the production of mead
for festivals.
Many animals that lived in Sweden and the other Baltic regions at
the time had good pelts. Squirrel, martens, sable, seal, walrus,
and even polar bear skins were hunted or collected as tribute by
the Svear. The seal and walrus skins were braided into ca bles for
ships, probably similar to the ox hide cables that were used in the
Falun mine. These furs were held in high especially value in places
like Byzantium and Bulghar.
Although the occupants of central Sweden lived nearby to other
similar people, they had quite a different effect on the regions
that they visited. The regions that they visited were very of
different cultures than those visited by the other Viking groups.
The wealthy and literate Arabic regions and the Byzantine Empire
were located south and east of the Baltic. These two regions were
possibly the wealthiest, technologically advanced, and most
well-established civilizations of the time, outside of Asia. While
the Svear were by no means badly off, these other lands were doing
very well and the new regions provided opportunities to acquire
exotic goods and to gain wealth and status.
Farming was the foremost way of life in the Mälar valley
before, during and after the Viking period. Social standing was
partially dependent on land ownership. The Svear seemed to consider
themselves farmers first and foremost, for they usually returned to
farming during the times they were not away trading or warring.
The period from 800-1100 saw an apparent change in the
substructure of social order in Scandinavia. Although familial ties
and friendships remained the strongest bonds of loyalty, the
emphasis drifted from obligations to relatives to obligations to
individuals. (c.f. arise of modern welfare state?) The laws held
those related by a common ancestor four
generations back, for example a great-great-grandfather, to be the
basic social group (Foote : 5)
obligated to support each other. Gradually, by the end of the
Viking era, fielty to individuals became a more important binding
force in society.
The laws and social codes pertaining to honor and alliance, must
have made it more difficult to find space for completely new
farmsteads to start between or near the old ones. Prior to the
early Iron age there was believed to be a drop in
population in Sweden, possibly due to a high level of
exploitation of the land (Widgren
85), so it is likely that it occurred again. It appears that as
much of the land that could have been considered arable at the time
was in use by the end of the 1100's. With no innovations in
agriculture and no real expansion outwards, it probably became
increasingly difficult to farm in that area. Specifically, the
methods used were not able to produce high enough yields in a
sustainable fashion to support the local populations. New
farmsteads require not only land, but protection in numbers for
defense and support. And, while still small, must not aggravate the
powerful. If view of the potential difficulties and pressures, it
probably would have been easier, socially to begin a new farm in
another land.
The Christian and pre-Christian societies had several differences.
The most prominent difference between the pre Christian era and the
Christian era seems to have been that women had a different, and
probably better, status than they did later, as far as rights and
function in society were concerned. The Arab merchant, Al-Tartushi, wrote that women then had the right to
declare divorce and leave whenever they like ( Jones 177). Additionally, many of the
rune stones in Sweden were commissioned by women or in honor of
women.
On top of familial loyalties, there were three general classes in
central Sweden during the Viking era. These were rulers, freemen,
and slaves, and each was related to farming, according to the
written observations of outside visitors to the Svear and a few
others. The Song of Rig (Crossley-Holland) described
three social classes, the rulers, freemen, and the slaves. Merchants, craftsmen, religious leaders, lawyers, healers
and house-karls were probably not classes of their own, but part
time professions. Scholars Foote and
Wilson (79-122) corroborate this three leveled structure of
slaves, the rulers, and freemen. This structure was not rigid and
permitted class to be changed. The kings power depended on the
public opinion (Foote : 35), but
seem to have been chosen from within a particular family.
Slaves were gathered through war, piracy, and
trade ( Jones 148), all methods
being so common as to be hard to tell which is most frequent. Anyone could be captured as a slave during the
course of travel, warfare, etc. Slaves owned by the Scandinavians
could generally work for their freedom. (Foote) Freemen appear to have been the
overwhelming majority of the population. They owned and worked
land, and occasionally joined in various expeditions. Kings were
chosen by freemen and nobles at a public assembly called the thing.
Likewise, they could be deposed if their followers determined that
the king's luck had run out.
During the Viking age, the Scandinavian peoples governed
themselves by a council of leaders and freemen, called the Ting14 (Brøndsted 244). This
council gathered out of doors at a hallowed place to make
decisions, hear opinions of the members, and air grievances. The
thing was well established in Scandinavian culture. Norway's
parliament is still called the Storting and Denmark, the Allting
and many old towns in Sweden have place names, often street names,
named after the Thing. The thing met in Uppsala until
16th c. (Davidson, 1967 :
108) The Thing occasionally oversaw the settlement of disputes
which could not be settled by payment, fighting, or a combination
of the two.
Penalties were usually payment, temporary
outlawry, outlawry (Foote 381).
For payment, an appropriate amount was determined and then to be
repaid. Occasionally an individual was punished to outlawry that
lasted a few years or until payment could be made. Outlawry was the
most severe change in social status where the outlawed individual
was expelled from society and would be killed if he or she did not
leave the territory. Sheltering an outlaw was also a crime, but
even if the outlaw did leave the territory he or she could still be
hunted and killed without penalty.
The method of governance and types of penalties indicate the
concepts that a culture holds to be important. In the case of the
Viking age Scandinavians, wealth and participation in society
appear to have been highly valued.
Concepts that are important in society often play a central role
in myths and religious practice. The practice of religion by the
inhabitants and the content . A large religious center lay near
Birka, in the town of Uppsala. People were required to attend and
pay tribute for a festival that occurred within it every nine
years. This almost certainly contributed to the strength of Birka,
since two major inland routes cross at Birka. (Ambrosiani : 48)
According to Norse mythology, the universe was composed of three
regions, each subdivided into three sub regions. Through all of
these ran the tree, Yggdrasil. It was a life supporting the cosmos
and itself balanced between decay and renewal. As in daily life,
the cosmic order held a distinct hierarchy that was also changing
and temporary.
Among the many supernatural beings that existed for the Svear,
there were trolls, giants, dwarves, monsters, and two groups of
gods. The Norse gods and goddesses, like the folk that worshipped
them, were good at a number of things each and adaptable to many
situations, not specialized like insects. The two groups of gods
and goddesses were the Aesir and the Vanir. The Aesir were newer
and more war-like and appear to have usurped the more agrarian
Vanir but were unable to vanquish them out right, so an uneasy
treaty was formed between the two groups. There were many other
important gods and goddesses, but relatively few traces of them
survive today The most prominent at the end seem to have been Odin,
Thor, and Frey. They most likely represent the attributes and deeds
that most occupied the thoughts of the people then. By examining
their characters, a sampling of what was part of the lives of the
Svear can perhaps be seen.
Odin was the leader of the gods and most
versatile of them. He was father of most of the Aesir and was
called the god of the slain, the god of knowledge, the god of
poetry, and the god of cargoes (Crossley-Holland: 64, 200) to
mention just a few of his titles. Odin was foremost the battle god.
Above all, Odin was ruthless. He apparently delighted in causing
strife on earth and often turned suddenly against his worshippers,
calling them into death. No one was spared from his sacrifice, not
even himself. Not only did he trade one of his own eyes for a drink
at the well of knowledge, he even hanged himself in sacrifice to
himself to gain the knowledge of runes.
Odin's quest for knowledge was in the service of collecting
intelligence in preparation for the doomsday battle, Ragnarok. He
could interrogate the dead, and had two crows, named Thought and
Memory, that flew the world daily. It seems that ruthlessness and
collection of strategic knowledge would benefit both warriors and
merchants. Poetry was, after all, used at this time period as
another means of providing an after action report of a battle well
fought. Perhaps he was not so much the god of knowledge and wisdom,
as we use the words today, but instead the god of versatility
through cunning and strategy.
Frey was foremost of the fertility gods and one
of the Vanir, but not as much is known about him as Odin and Thor.
He and Njord were traded to the Aesir by the Vanir as peace
hostages. He was invoked at weddings and possibly at funerals. He
was associated with horses (Davidson 1981 : 97) and both he and
his sister, Freyja, were associated with the boar. The ban on
weapons, blood shed, and outlaws reinforce the concept of fertility
god (ibid. 98); things grow better and faster during times of
peace.
Thor became the most popular of the Norse gods
by the close of the pre-Christian era. He was protector of the gods
and of humanity and was probably most closely associated in
character with humanity, particularly with the farmer. His primary
function among the gods was exertion of force (Davidson 1988 : 200). Possibly this is
part of association with the farmer, which was the cause of his
popularity. His identifying traits were necessary and admirable to
have for a successful farm. He had great strength, and although, a
bit slow witted for a god, he was strong and dependable (Crossley-Holland xxvii).
As god of rain and thunder and through his mother, the earth, he
can be associated with farming . As additional connection with
agriculture there was a whetstone fragment lodged in his skull
which gave him pains any time a whetstone was thrown. Whetstone
central to pre-industrial agriculture; dull tools make slow, hard
work with damage to that which is harvested. To throw a brittle
whetstone is to risk breaking it, and a large, even whetstone is
much more useful than a small, broken one. However, he was born of
the union of the god of battle and the earth; his father was Odin,
so his is also known for his fighting prowess.
How a people view what happens after life tends to show what is
important to them in life and may even have cause of how people act
in this life. Ragnarok embodies a theme of a destruction and
creation cycle. Renewal through new life arising from the death of
the old, not rebirth of the old. Just as the seasons bring new life
without bringing back the old.
Ragnarok, the doom or destiny of the gods, is
the gigantic battle which consumes all of the universe, leaving
only a few seeds for the next one to grow from. All things must
die, even the gods (Jones 318) as
part of the cycle of renewal and growth. Here, they all die in
battle. As grain is cut by iron for use later, warriors are cut
down by iron for use later. Odin and Frigg share the slain
warriors. Half go to her hall, Fensalir, half to his hall,
Valhalla. Those that do not die in battle, rot in silence in the
cold north. In Odin's hall, the slain warriors fight as armies all
day every day and then are rewarded with feasting all night every
night, in practice for their final battle. The Aesir, led by Odin,
will have this army to support them in the final battle.
In the hall of Odin, the food is pig flesh and the drink is mead,
both in unlimited supply. Mead and references to
mead are many in and out of myth and apparently had religious
significance as well as social. Brewing and consuming drink for
festivals was required by law in some parts of Norway until late
(Foote 402), it seems reasonable
to assume that this may have been the case in Sweden, too. Traces
of mead are found containers in graves and mead
plays a central role in many of the surviving myths as recorded by
Snorri Sturluson. (Crossley-Holland 156)
Settlement was another reason to travel outward. The opportunity
to more to a less crowded region may have provided some incentive
to settle and travelers to Greek and Arab lands passed many fine
farming regions. Many settlements were made along the waterways
along the routes to the eastern markets. Often these started as
temporary settlements that became more and more permanent. Raiding
groups, in particular, needed a haven to retreat to that was
relatively nearby. Although the Swedes were not allowed to stay
over the winter in Constantinople, unless they were members of the
Varangian guard, the had garrisons in Novgorod,
Smolensk, Kiev that lasted for many years (Brøndsted : 263). Some
lasted longer than others.
Extensive trade was carried out in the Mälar valley,
particularly in the towns of Birka, Adelsö, Helgö,
Sigtuna and others. Much of it was local trade with the nearby
farming communities and with the iron producing regions to the
northwest. In the case of Birka, however, foreign trade played a
big role. Local trade may have been important in obtaining enough
food to support a substantial population on such islands with large
populations, such as Birka and Helgö.
Evidence of the importance of trade to the Svear can be seen in
the amount of foreign goods found in archeological investigations
and in accounts and legal documents recorded by those that had
contact with the Svear. The Svear traded a wide range of goods
which they transported over many great distances. They had their
local goods and materials that were gathered along the way either
by trade, extortion and tribute, or plundering. Grave finds and
other archaeological finds in the Birka, Helgö, Sigtuna areas
of the Mälar valley show what made its way to and from the
land of the Svear. Accounts recorded by eastern merchants and
officials indicate how and where some of these goods changed hands.
The Svear traded quite a bit within their own land and had access
to a lot of natural resources. Inland and to the north there were
populations to trade with and collect tribute from. Dried fish,
down, furs, slaves, sheep, cattle, goatskins, leather, hawks,
honey, wax, nuts, grain, amber, iron, swords, and armor were some
of the items traded in eastern markets. (Davidson 1976 : 105)
The Svear also traded in human resources. They occasionally hired
themselves out as mercenaries and often traded slaves. The
Varangian guard in Constantinople was probably the most prominent
example of mercenary activity of the Svear. Slave
trade went on in private exchanges, rather than open markets.
The open markets were considered too degrading. Since the boats
were small and could only carry a very limited cargo, quality
rather than quantity must have been a key factor in the Svear's
slave trade. Highly skilled and slaves with lighter skin brought
high prices in the eastern markets. (Davidson 1976 : 100).
There were many trade routes from the Mälar
region15. Large scale trade seems to mostly
have been done by ship. Those over land went mostly to the
northwest, with at least one to the southwest. The water routes
went in most directions, but mostly across the Baltic to the Gulf
of Finland or the Gulf of Riga.
Some of the routes predated the Iron age, particularly those to
the south. Many were expanded during the Iron age and then expanded
further during the Viking age. From the Gulf of Finland and Lake
Ladoga region, the main routes seem to have been
to reach the River Volga and then travel it to Bulghar and then
down to the Caspian Sea. Alternately, they would travel south along
the River Volkhov to the River Dniepr and then following along the
west coast of the Black Sea to Constantinople (Larsson 19). From the Gulf of Riga, the
main route seems to have been to have inland to the River Dniepr
and then south.
The far away destinations of these travelers were Byzantium and
Itil. The trade routes went as far as the boats could travel up
even small rivers. Cities along the way, such as Bulghar, received
some traffic. Distant cities like Samarkand, Bokhara, and Baghdad
were accessible by land travel and it seems that there was some
travel there by the Svear, even though it necessitated travel over
land.
Fighting between groups occurred for many reasons. Sometimes it
went on as a function of plundering, revenge, in assistance to an
ally, or defense against any of the previous. Raids occurred for
many reasons. Augmentation of supplies and wealth, compensation for
poor trade or to capture slaves were all reasons given for raids.
Often, these were traded elsewhere, especially the slaves. When
tribute was extorted from weaker regions, some times it may have
been necessary to show a little force.
Sometimes regions fought back successfully against the attackers,
other times they the Svear made treaties with strong groups to
avoid such problems and move on. As a result of the raiding nearby,
the Byzantine as long as the Svear did no damage locally and shared
the gains with the rulers, In 907 Svear who
arrived with merchandise and caused no violence in the city or
countryside, were rewarded by the emperor with six months of
provisions (Davidson 1976 :
90). This was presumably to encourage them to leave when they
were done, as it was also written that no Rus arriving without
merchandise was allowed to receive provisions. (the point
is?)
Although, farming was the way of life for the inhabitants of
central Sweden for quite a while before, during and after the
Viking period, trade and warfare were supplemental. Crafted
products and trade were exchanged to enhance the quality of life
and through social intercourse. Warfare was an inherent part of the
times. One must defend oneself, and additionally, help to defend
friends and family in exchange for their help.
To reach remote regions, the Svear would often have to pass
through many territories. Some of these territories were not only
organized enough to present a danger, but were occasionally hostile
or needed treating with. It was necessary to gain permission before
passing through a territory in order to reduce the danger and to be
able to travel further. If permission was granted then it was
usually easier to pass, but there were often conditions. For example, a fleet of Swedish ships were allowed to
pass through from the Sea of Azov to reach the Caspian sea on the
condition that half of the plunder be given as payment to the king
in Sarkel as payment. (Davidson
1976 : 126) Half of the plunder was quite a price. However, the
populace disagreed with the king attacked the fleet as it passed
through on its return trip and the king could only try to warn the
Swedes.
End Notes
Chapter 3 index.
Chapter 4.
Thesis Index.
10 See Figure 6: Genetic Gradients (based on Piazzi :
1768)
11 See Figure 5: Water Levels
in the Baltic (Mead 1958)
12 See Figure 7: Occurrence
of pre-Christian grave sites in southern Sweden (Burström :
29)
13 See Figure 8: Iron
Production in Sweden (Calissendorff 137)
14 Old Norse: Ting, English:
Thing
15 See Figure 9: The Viking
World and Trade Routes (Jones 160-161)