Mobile cell phones are integral to social fabric of the contemporary United States and other technologically advanced societies. There is considerable research on the psychology and behavior of cell phone use, though most of the scientific literature is based on survey studies and experience sampling applications. Cell phone use while driving increases the risk of automobile accidents. Survey responses regarding controversial and illegal behaviors are often biased by socially-desirable responding. Precise data on population usage patterns are typically proprietary. Naturalistic observations may provide unique information that complements findings from self-report survey methods and address research questions outside the proper scope of surveys and topics on which socially-desirably responding may occur. We examined cell phone use among drivers (N = 2538) in a Midwestern USA college town. In the study setting, texting while driving is illegal, whereas both hands-free (e.g., Bluetooth-enabled) and phone-in-hand calls are permitted. However, drivers cited for traffic violations may also be charged with careless driving due to cell phone use. Overall, 23% of drivers were observed using their phones; 9% were talking with their phones in hand, 9% were texting, and 6.4% of those with no passengers in the car were observed talking (likely on a hands-free, or Bluetooth, call). Older drivers were less likely to be texting. Drivers were less likely to be using their phones when they had passengers and when it was raining. We demonstrate the value of observational studies for understanding technology use; our results complement those of self-report survey research.
Cell phones are useful tools with both practical and social benefits. However, using them in the context of face-to-face conversations may be problematic. We consider this behavior a form of ostracism and test its effects on the satisfaction of basic psychological needs for belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence. In Study 1 participants who recalled a time in which a friend was checking a cell phone during a serious conversation reported feeling more ostracized (ignored and excluded), greater pain, and threat to basic needs than participants recalling a conversation without a cell phone interruption or a control event. Study 2 replicated and extended this effect: Cell phone-induced ostracism’s effects were partially mediated by decreased feelings of relational evaluation, and threatened basic needs both in serious and casual conversation contexts. Findings from both studies also indicated that cell phone-induced ostracism hurts women more so than men.
Cellphones are an integral part of life for many adults in technologically advanced societies. There is extensive research and literature on cellphones and social technology, with most studies conducted through self-report surveys, experience sampling, and system log data. Although self-report survey methods are useful for examining how individuals perceive and feel about cellphone related issues, self-reported cellphone usage behavior is only moderately correlated with objective system log data. Naturalistic observations complement findings from self-report survey methods and may be the best method of objectively assessing both the patterns of and influences on cellphone use in real-world social contexts. Observers documented cellphone use among individuals (N = 4079) in seven public areas within or immediately surrounding a large public university campus in the Midwestern USA. Observers recorded whether or not individuals were using their cellphones, as well as individual’s sex, approximate age (undergraduate or older), group size, if the individual was engaged in live conversation with companions, and the prevailing weather conditions. Those engaged in live conversation were less likely to be using their cellphones than those who were not conversing with companions. Younger adults (those appearing to be in the typical undergraduate age range) were more likely to be using their cellphones than those who appeared older. Women were more likely to be using their cellphones than men. Phone use was higher in warmer weather than on colder days. Overall, this study demonstrates the value of observational studies for understanding technology use in social contexts.
Phantom cell phone experiences are instances when mobile cell phone users perceive ringing, vibrations, and/or visual stimuli indicating an incoming call or message, yet no call or message actually registers on the phone. As a human signal-detection issue, these experiences may be influenced by psychological factors. We hypothesize that phantom cell phone experiences are a symptom of psychological dependency on cell phone communications and the resulting hypersensitivity to stimuli in the same class as cell phone notification methods. We find support for this hypothesis with path model analyzing responses from a large undergraduate sample. Self-reported symptoms of cell phone dependency strongly predicted the frequency of phantom cell phone experiences and mediated the relationships between personality factors, age, and participant sex with the frequency of phantom cell phone experiences. Women, younger individuals, and those with lower conscientiousness and emotional stability (i.e. higher neuroticism) had higher symptoms of cell phone dependency.
Cell phones are integral to the lives of contemporary university undergraduates in the United States. Observers documented cell phone use in public spaces within or immediately surrounding a large public university campus in the Midwestern USA. Individuals (N = 2013) were monitored from the time they entered a waiting space, either a line at a coffee shop or fast food restaurant, a bus stop, or an open area outside of a large lecture hall. Observers recorded whether individuals were using their cell phones when then arrived or began using their phones during the observation, recording the number of seconds between arrival and cell phone use. The majority of individuals (62%) were observed using their cell phones, 32% when they arrived and 30% initiated use after arrival. The majority (55%) of the later group initiated use within 10 seconds of arrival and 80% initiated use within 20 seconds of arrival. Women were more likely to use their phones than men and individuals engaged in a live conversation were less likely to use their cell phones. There was a weak trend for longer latencies in cell phone use compared to those not in conversations, although it did not reach statistical significance.
Mobile cell phone users have reported experiencing ringing and/or vibrations associated with incoming calls and messages, only to find that no call or message had actually registered. We believe this phenomenon can be understood as a human signal detection issue, with potentially important influences from psychological attributes. We hypothesized that individuals higher in attachment anxiety would report more frequent phantom cell phone experiences, whereas individuals higher in attachment avoidance would report less frequent experiences. If these experiences are primarily psychologically related to attributes of interpersonal relationships, associations with attachment style should be stronger than for general sensation seeking. We also predicted that certain contexts would interact with attachment style to increase or decrease the likelihood of experiencing phantom cell phone calls and messages. Attachment anxiety directly predicted the frequency of phantom ringing and notification experiences, whereas attachment avoidance and sensation seeking did not directly predict frequency. Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance interacted with contextual factors (expectations for a call or message and concerned about an issue that one may be contacted about) in the expected directions for predicting phantom cell phone experiences.
Cell phone use is increasingly prominent in public settings and may shape face-to-face social interactions. We used an ethological approach to examine cell phone use in public dyadic interactions, recording detailed behavior sequences. Naturalistic observations in university dining halls and nearby commercial dining facilities indicated that one individual's cell phone use is a frequent precursor to the companion's cell phone use. Cell phones create an alternative outlet for one's attention and may both promote and interfere with live social interaction. These results have important implications for the role of information technology in modern social interactions.