25. LENORA A. TIMM, University of California at Davis
Program in Linguistics
UC Davis
Davis, CA 95616-8685
916/752-4540/9933 (mess.)
Linguistics 113
Winter 1993
LINGUISTICS 113: Language, Gender & Society. (4 units)
Quarter: Winter 1993. Lecture Hours: 3. Discussion: 1.
Course Goals: The course examines the nature and function
of sex differences in communication on a cross-cultural basis.
The emphasis is on verbal (spoken and written) language,
but some attention is also paid to differences in nonverbal
communication. The contrasts between stereotypes about
how women and men communicate and the actually
occurring patterns are carefully examined. The significance
of different communication patterns is considered in
connection with theoretical models drawn from
sociolinguistics, anthropology, and psychology. Topics
covered include:
Sex differences in linguistic forms (pronunciation,
vocabulary, syntax, etc.); conversational patterns; issues of
status and politeness; gender bias in language use;
developmental aspects of sex-differential language use; sex
differences in nonverbal communication; case studies in
language use (i.e., sex-related differences in legal language;
in educational texts; in the mass media); and strategies for
changing sexist linguistic practices.
Recommended Preparation: Linguistics 1 or Anthropology 4.
Course format: Lectures and discussion; several videos &
films.
Student Assignments: One short paper (25%); one term
paper (50%); final exam (25%)
Textbooks:
(1) Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae, and Nancy Henley (eds.),
LANGUAGE, GENDER AND SOCIETY. Rowley, MA: Newbury
House, 2nd ed., l983.
(2) Jennifer Coates and Deborah Cameron (eds.), WOMEN IN
THEIR SPEECH COMMUNITIES: NEW PERSPECTIVES ON
LANGUAGE AND SEX. New York: Longman, 1989.
(3) Joyce Penfield, ed., WOMEN AND LANGUAGE IN
TRANSITION. Albany: New York State University Press,
1987.
(4) LINGUISTICS 113 READER: a collection of articles
available at Navin's Copy Shop.
Linguistics 113
Winter 1993
S Y L L A B U S
LECTURE TOPICS AND REQUIRED READINGS
Abbreviations Used:
LGS = Language, Gender and Society, ed. by Barrie
Thorne, Cheris Kramarae & Nancy Henley. Rowley, MA:
Newbury House, 1983.
WLT = Women and Language in Transition, ed. by Joyce
Penfield. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
WTSC = Women in their Speech Communities. New
Perspectives on Language and Sex, ed. by Jennifer Coates &
Deborah Cameron. New York: Longman, 1989.
L113R = Linguistics 113 Reader (a collection of articles
and book chapters compiled from different sources)
1.0. THE STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN GENERAL AND
LANGUAGE AND SEX IN PARTICULAR
a. WTSC: Ch. 1, Introduction; Ch. 2, "Some Problems in
the Sociolinguistic Explanation of Sex Differences" (by D.
Cameron & J. Coates)
b. LGS: pp. 7-24, "Language, Gender and Society:
Opening a Second Decade of Research" (by B. Thorne, C.
Kramarae, & N. Henley)
c. L113R: "When 'Difference' is 'Dominance' : A Critique
of the 'Anti-power-based' Cultural Approach to Sex
Differences" (by A. Uchida in Language in Society 21(4):547-
568)
2.0. THE INTERPRETATION OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN
LINGUISTIC FORMS
a. L113: "What has Gender Got to do with Sex?" (by D.
Cameron in Language and Communication 5(1):19-27)
b. LGS: pp. 69-88, "Intonation in a Man's World" (by S.
McConnell-Ginet)
3.0. SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SELECTION AND
FREQUENCY OF LINGUISTIC FORMS
3.1. Assumptions and Stereotypes; Speech Styles
a. L113R: "Proprietors of Language" (by C. Kramarae in S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Woman and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
1980, pp. 58-68)
b. L113R: "Genderlect, Powerlect, and Politeness" (by N.
Hoar in L. A .M. Perry, L. H. Turner, & H.M. Sterk, eds.,
Constructing and Reconstructing Gender. Albany: State
University of New York, 1992, pp. 127-136.)
3.2. Empirical Evidence
a. WTSC: Ch. 7, "Lakoff in context: The social and
linguistic functions of tag questions" (by D. Cameron, F.
McAlinden & K. O'Leary)
b. L113R: "How Taboo are Taboo Words for Girls?" (by V.
De Klerk in Language in Society 21(2): 277-290)
c. L113R: "Functions of you know in women's and men's
speech" (by J. Holmes in Language in Society 15(1):1-22)
4.0. STRATEGIES OF COMMUNICATION
4.1. The Politics of Conversation
a. LGS: pp. 89-102, "Interaction: The Work Women Do"
(by P. Fishman).
b. LGS: pp. 103-118, "Small Insults: A Study of
Interruptions in Cross-Sex Conversations between
Unacquainted Persons" (by C. West and D. Zimmerman).
c. WTSC: Ch. 8, "Gossip Revisited..." (by J. Coates); Ch. 9,
"Talk Control..." (by J. Swann); Ch. 10, "Talking Shop..." (by N.
Woods).
4.2. Issues of Status, Politeness, Power and "Face"
a. WTSC: Ch. 3, "A Pragmatic Account of Women's Use of
Standard Speech" (by M. Deuchar)
b. LGS: pp. 119-124, "Men, Inexpressiveness, and
Power" (by J. Sattel)
c. L113R: "How and Why are Women More Polite: Some
Evidence from a Mayan Community" (by P. Brown in S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Woman and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
1980, pp. 111-136)
d. L113R "Teasing and Sexual Harassment: Double-bind
Communication in the Workplace (by J. Alberts in L. A .M.
Perry, L. H. Turner, & H.M. Sterk, eds., Constructing and
Reconstructing Gender. Albany: State University of New
York, 1992, pp. 185-196)
4.3. Identity and Conservatism vs. Innovation
a. LGS: pp. 54-68, "Linguistic Options and Choices for
Black Women in the Rural South" (by P. Nichols).
b. WLT: pp. 159-166, "The role of American Indian
women in cultural continuity and transition" (by B.
Medecine).
c. WLT: pp. 167-179, "Language and female identity in
the Puerto Rican community" (by A. Zentella).
d. WTSC: Ch. 5, "Differences of sex and sects..." (by B.
Thomas)
5.0. PSYCHO-SOCIAL CONSTRAINTS REFLECTED IN
LANGUAGE: GENDER BIAS IN ENGLISH
5.1. The Generic Masculine and Other Male-as-Norm
Phenomena
a. LGS: pp. 25-37, "Beyond the He/Man Approach: The
Case for Nonsexist Language" (by W. Martyna).
b. LGS: pp. 38-53, "Prescriptive Grammar and the
Pronoun Problem" (by D. MacKay).
c. WLT: pp. 28-36, "Linguistic description: He/she, s/he,
he or she, he-she" (by B.L. Dubois and I. Crouch)
5.2. The Lexicon: Words about Women and Men
a. L113R: "From discourse to dictionary: How sexist
meanings are authorized" (by P.A. Treichler in F.W. Frank &
P.A. Treichler, eds., Language, Gender, and Professional
Writing. Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for
Nonsexist Usage. New York: Modern Language Assoc., 1989,
pp. 51-79)
b. L113R: "The Semantic Derogation of Women" (by M.
Schulz in B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex:
Difference and Dominance. Rowley, MA: Newbury House,
1975, pp. 64-73.).
c. L113R : "Sexism in English: A 1990s Update" (by A.
Pace Nilsen in P. Escholz, A. Rosa & V. Clark, eds., Language
Awareness. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990, pp. 277-
287)
5.3. References to the Sexes
a. L113R: "Don't 'Dear' Me!" (by N. Wolfson & J. Manes in
S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
1980, pp.79-92.
b. WLT: "Surnaming: The struggle for personal identity"
(by J. Penfield).
6.0. THE ACQUISITION OF SEX DIFFERENTIAL LANGUAGE
a. LGS: pp. 140-150, "Men's Speech to Young Children"
(by J. B. Gleason and E. Greif)
b. L113R: "Directive-Response Speech Sequence in Girls'
and Boys' Task Activities" (by M. Goodwin in S. McConnell-
Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Woman and Language in
Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 1980, pp. 157-163)
c. L113R: " 'Kings are Royaler than Queens': Language
and Socialization" (by A. Shelton in Young Children
[January]:4-9)
7.0. SEX DIFFERENCES IN NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
a. L113R: "Silent sounds and secret messages "(by B.
Eakins & G. Eakins in B. Eakins & G .Eakins, Sex Differences in
Human Communication. Palo Alto: Houghton Mifflin Co.,
pp.147-179)
8.0. CASE STUDIES IN LANGUAGE USE (VERBAL &
NONVERBAL)
8.1. Literature
a. LGS: pp. 125-139, "Consciousness as Style: Style as
Aesthetic ((by J. Penelope & S. Wolfe)
8.2. The Law
a. L113R: "Sexism in the Language of Legislatures and
Courts" (by H. Bosmajian in A.P. Nilsen, et al., eds., Sexism
and Language. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of
English, 1977, pp. 77-106)
8.3. Education
a. L113R: "Sexism in Children's Books and Elementary
Classroom Materials" (by A. Nilsen in A.P. Nilsen, et al., eds.,
Sexism and Language. Urbana, IL: National Council of
Teachers of English, 1977, pp. 151-180)
b. L113R: "Sex Role Stereotypes of Stepparents in
Children's Literature" (by P. Cooper in L.P. Stewart & S. Ting-
Toomey, eds., Communication, Gender, and Sex Roles in
Diverse Interaction Contexts. Norwood, NJ: ABLEX, 1987, pp.
61-82)
c. WLT: pp. 87-53, "Guidelines against sexist language:
A case history" (by A.P. Nilsen)
8.4. The Media
a. L113R: "A New 'Genderation' of Images to Women"
(by L. Lazier-Smith in P.J. Creedon, ed., Women in Mass
Communication: Challenging Gender Values. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage, 1989, pp. 247-260)
b. L113R: "A Sociocultural Close-up: Body Image in
Advertising" (by A. Gagnard in P.J. Creedon, ed., Women in
Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage, 1989, pp. 261-262)
c. L113R: "Discourse on Women's Bodies: Advertising in
the 1920s" (by M. Hawkins & T. Nakayama) in L. A .M. Perry,
L. H. Turner, & H.M. Sterk, eds., Constructing and
Reconstructing Gender. Albany: State University of New
York, 1992, pp. 61-72)
9.0. STRATEGIES FOR SOCIAL AND LINGUISTIC CHANGE
a. WLT: pp. 3-27, "The new species that seeks a new
language: On sexism in language and language change" (by
N. Henley)
b. WLT: pp. 65-72, "Resources for liberating the
curriculum" (by B. Withers).
Videos/Films Used in LIN 113
Stale Roles & Tight Buns (1982). O.A.S.I.S. ([Men] Organized
Against Sexism and Institutionalized Racism]
Gender: The Enduring Paradox (c. 1990). Smithsonian
World/PBS.
Inequity in the Classroom (1991). Concordia, Canada:
Concordia University.
Still Killing Us Softly: Advertising's Image of Women (1987).
J. Kilbourne, Cambridge, MA.
Linguistics 113
Language, Gender and Society
Winter 1993
Professor: Lenora A. Timm.
Office Hours: Tues/Thurs., 12-1:30 or by appt. My office is
in 903 Sproul. The Linguistics Office is in 922 Sproul.
Telephone: 752-4540/9933 (message)
T.A.s: Ulrike Cristofori & Helen Hadji
TEXTBOOKS:
(1) Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae, and Nancy Henley
(eds.), LANGUAGE, GENDER AND SOCIETY. Rowley, MA:
Newbury House, 2nd ed., l983. [Abbreviated in the Syllabus
as LGS]
(2) Jennifer Coates and Deborah Cameron (eds.), WOMEN IN
THEIR SPEECH COMMUNITIES: NEW PERSPECTIVES ON
LANGUAGE AND SEX. New York: Longman, 1989.
[Abbreviated in the Syllabus as WTSC]
(3) Joyce Penfield, ed., WOMEN AND LANGUAGE IN
TRANSITION. Albany: New York State University Press,
1987. [Abbreviated in the Syllabus as WLT]
(4) LINGUISTICS 113 READER: a collection of articles
available at Navin's Copy Shop [Abbreviated in the
Syllabus as L113R]
COURSE REQUIREMENTS: This is a General Education Course
(Contemporary Societies). There is, therefore, an emphasis
on the enhancement of writing skills. Specific requirements
include:
(1) one short paper (5-7 pages), worth 25% of the course
grade
(2) a longer research paper (12+ pages) due at the end of the
quarter, worth 50% of the course grade
(3) a final examination, worth 25% of the course grade.
More information on the nature of the writing assignments
will be provided early in the quarter.
SCHEDULE
Lecture Date Associated Readings or Other Assignment
(Numbers and letters refer to sections in the Syllabus.)
JAN. 7 -----
12 1.0.a.-c.
14 2.0.a.-b.
19
21 3.1.a.-b.
26 FILM
28
FEB. 2 3.2.a.-c.
4 4.1.a.-c.
9 4.2.a.-d.
11 4.3.a.-d.
16 5.1.a.-c./Paper #1 Due (in class)
18 5.2.a.-c.
23 5.3.a.-c/
25 6.0.a.-c./FILM
MAR 2 7.0.a.
4 8.1.a.
9 8.2.a.
11 8.3.a.-c.
16 8.4. a.-c. & 9.0.a.-b./FILM
22 FINAL EXAM (8-10 a.m.)
24 Paper #2 Due (by 5 p.m. in 922 Sproul)
Topics for Paper #1
1. This topic requires that you watch some TV; specifically,
a show with a good amount of dialogue, such as a soap opera
or a talk show. Tape-record a minimum of one hour of talk
from one type of show or the other, and while watching it,
take notes on characteristics of the speakers in terms of
their sex, approximate age, approximate socioeconomic
status and educational level, as well as their relationship
with other characters if you're watching a soap opera
(friend, parent, child, lover, estranged spouse); or
participants if you are watching a talk (guest, host, famous
or not, relative age and authority of guest vs. host). The
assignment involves listening to these dialogues and
documenting any sex-linked differences in two of the
following areas of language usage:
1) intonational contours (sentence melodies).
2) pronunciation differences (e.g., runnin' vs. running,
watchin' vs. watching; would'ja vs. would you; gonna vs.
going to, etc.).
3) vocabulary differences (e.g., in choice of expletive such
as 'darn' vs. 'damn' or something stronger; choice of
adjectives such as 'neat/nice' vs. 'rad/awesome', etc.; also in
reference to the sexes--e.g., 'woman', 'girl', 'chick', 'lady';
'man', 'boy', 'guy', 'dude', 'dudette', etc.).
4) tag questions (divide tags into modal vs. facilitative,
following the model provided in Reading 3.2.a, and pay
attention to intonation on the tags).
5) hedges & fillers ('you know', 'sort of', 'kinda', 'like', etc.)
You will need to consider how any differences you find
correspond (if they do) with the particular conversational
pairs involved (i.e., wife-husband, daughter-mother,
daughter-father, lover-lover, son-mother, son-father; host-
guest, guest-guest); and you may find it useful to comment
on particular traits of given characters or personalities.
In writing up your findings, tie your discussion in as much
as possible with what we have so far covered in class
(lectures and/or reading) about stereotypes of female and
male speech and also what is known from empirical studies
that have been carried out (see the readings in 2.0., 3.1., &
3.2.).
It is important that you structure your paper in an organized
way, including:
--a statement of purpose (what you hope to accomplish and
why).
--a brief discussion of the programs you chose to watch and
why these particular programs.
--a compact presentation of your data, and possibly
examples of some exchanges among speakers that you
recorded.
--a discussion of the data and their implications in
connection with the stereotypes and realities of
male/female communication differences.
--a brief conclusion.
Your paper should be typed double-spaced, well proof-read
and approximately 6-7 pages in length (it may be longer
if you wish).
2. Drawing on what you have so far learned about sex
differences in English, create three conversations (about1-
1/2-2 pages each) between female-female, male-male, and
female-male conversational partners. The speakers should
be matched for age, education, and socioeconomic status.
Construct the conversations around one (and only one) of the
following themes:
--Does television influence people's behavior?
--Finding employment after graduation
--Life in the U.S in the year 2020
Construct the conversations so that they sound reasonably
natural to you--that is, don't overdo the stereotyped
linguistic features associated with the female and male
speech registers (styles). On the other hand, you should
incorporate those linguistic features that seem to be in
agreement with real usage (according to what has been
reported in lectures and/or the readings, and based also on
your own experience).
Following the conversations, provide a discussion of the
similarities and contrasts in the three sets of conversations
that you have constructed, and indicate specific readings
and/or lecture materials that you have drawn on in creating
them--(see the Syllabus 3.1., 3.2, & 4.1.)
Your paper should be typed double-spaced, well proof-read,
and approximately 6-7 pages in length (it may be longer
if you wish).
3. Carefully read and think about the xeroxed editorial by
columnist John Keasler found on the other side of this sheet.
Your assignment is to write a rebuttal to Keasler's attack on
the revised edition of Roget's Thesaurus that has attempted
to eliminate sexist linguistic usages.
You should respond to each of his assertions, or complaints,
and you may do so with rhetorical vigor; but be sure to
document your statements or points of rebuttal with
references to research presented in lecture and/or readings
for this course. The readings especially pertinent to this
assignment are found in Sections 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 of the
Syllabus.
Your paper should be 5-7 pages, typed and double-spaced.
Pay attention to your grammar, style, and spelling.
Linguistics 113
TERM PAPER (Paper #2) TOPIC SUGGESTIONS
(Papers due on March 24, 1993)
The topics that follow are suggestive rather than exhaustive.
In other words, if there is some other project which you
would like to undertake that falls within the rather
generous boundaries of the field we are studying, that will
probably be fine by me; just be sure to clear your idea with
your T.A. or with me first.
Most of the topics I have included here involve data
collection and analysis. Your paper should include both
some examples of the data and a discussion of your data-
gathering techniques. You may wish to include all of your
data as a kind of appendix to which the reader can be
referred (however, the appendix is not to be counted as part
of the 12 pages required; bibliography, on the other hand,
may be counted). Your paper grade will depend greatly on
the quality of your analysis and interpretation of the data
and also on the coherence of its overall organization.
1. a. Differential Usage of Tag Questions.
Collect data for at least a week from overheard
conversations and from radio and T.V. (especially talk
shows). You should note down in a systematic way the
following factors in each situation:
1) sex of speaker and addressee
2) approximate ages of speaker and addressee
3) social identity of speaker and addressee (e.g., mother-
daughter, brother-sister, friend-friend, student-teacher,
newscaster-newscaster, host-guest, etc.)
4) the actual sentence heard with its tag question (e.g., 'I
can go now, can't I?; 'You're a real wise-guy, aren't you?')
5) the type of sentence melody on the tag (rising, falling,
or other).
6) additional voice modulations (e.g., angry, supplicating,
sarcastic, etc.)
7) the place where you heard the tag question (e.g., on
the sidewalk outside of the speaker's apartment, in a
linguistics class, on a TV talk show, etc.).
Relate your findings to such research as exists on this topic
(see relevant articles listed in Part IV.B. of the Annotated
Bibliography in LGS, pp. 239-246 and in Part V.B. of the
L113 Bibliography)
1.b.. Differential Usage of Rising Terminals on Sentences that
are Responses to Questions
This research topic is related to Topic 1.a., and was
mentioned in class in connection with the claim that has
been made that women tend much more than men to
answer, in effect, a question with a question--e.g. Q: What is
your name? A: My name is Sara Strong (with the answer
ending in a rising terminal, suggesting a question). Follow
the directions as for 1.a. through Item 3 and also Item 7).
Beyond that look for any factors in the context or the nature
of the interaction that might help you understand why this
type of intonational pattern is selected. It would also be
very useful, if possible, to record instances of the same
speaker using falling intonation in some contexts, and then
to see which variables (if any) have changed across the
examples of rising vs. falling intonation in response to a
question.
Relate your findings to such research as exists on this topic
(see relevant articles listed in Part IV.B. of the Annotated
Bibliography in LGS, pp. 239-246 and in Part V.B. of the
L113 Bibliography)
2. Differential Usage of Direct/Indirect Imperatives
You will need to consider all of the same variables as
given in #1, adapting them, of course, to the use of
imperatives. In addition, you may find it useful to classify
the imperatives in the following way:
DIRECT: e.g., Shut up!, Go away!
INDIRECT: Will you go away? Would you mind going away?
Won't you please go away?
DIRECT + INDIRECT: Go away, please! or Go away, won't you
please?
Relate your findings to the hypotheses and interpretations of
sex differences in politeness forms set forth in Penelope
Brown's article "How and Why are Women More Polite..." (in
your L113R set of readings; also look at relevant articles in
Part VII. of LIN 113 Bibliography).
3. Differences in Conversational Practices
For this project you will need to tape-record and take careful
notes on what goes on during a conversation or informal
discussion among the members of a small group (4-6 people,
mixed sex). You will need at least an hour's worth of
talk to get enough data for patterns to become evident; and
you must also get the consent of the people whom you
record. Alternatively, you can collect data from TV talk
shows; such data are somewhat less than "normal", but they
usually are spontaneous and they are readily accessible.
Questions that you will be trying to answer are: who takes
more turns; who takes longer turns; who interrupts whom;
who is interrupted most often; who interrupts most; how is
sex related to turns and interruptions?
The following information should be noted for each
participant in the conversation:
1) sex and approximate age of speaker
2) number of turns taken in a particular conversation
3) average length of speaker's turns (in seconds or
minutes)
4) number of interruptions made by each speaker
5) number or times each speaker was interrupted
6) reaction of the person interrupted (e.g., tried to regain
the floor, overrrode the interruption, lapsed into silence, etc.).
Discuss your findings in light of the readings and lectures on
conversational dynamics (and see Part V of the Annotated
Bibliography of LGS, pp. 264-292 and Part VI of LIN 113
Bibliography).
4. Differences in Terms of Address
Keep a journal for at least a week in which you record how
you were addressed by whom in what situations. Note down
systematically the setting in which each term of address was
used (e.g., service stations, restaurant, a telephone call
received, doctor's office, etc.); the social identity of the
addressor (e.g., gas station attendant, waitress or waiter,
insurance salesperson, doctor or nurse); the sex and
approximate age of the addressor.
What conclusions can you draw about others' perceptions of
you as a social persona on the basis of the terms of address
you receive. Discuss in relation to readings in section 5.3. of
the syllabus; and look at articles in Part XI of LIN 113
Bibliography
5. Differences in the Use of the Third Person Pronoun
Collect examples, in the sentences in which you hear them, of
the third person pronoun used to refer to a person whose
sex is unknown or irrevelant. Jot them down in a notebook
as you hear them, noting also sex of speaker and of
addressee, approximate age and socioeconomic position of
the speaker. Collect examples for two weeks. You may pad
out your corpus of data with examples culled from written
sources as well. Organize your data along the following lines
(from Ann Bodine [1975] "Androcentrism in Prescriptive
Grammar", Language in Society 4:129-146):
1) Either sex, distributive (e.g., Anyone can do it if ____
tries)
2) Either sex, disjunctive (e.g., A father or mother is
supposed to love ___child)
3) Sex unknown (e.g., Who didn't return _____ library
book on time?)
4) Sex concealed (e.g., A certain party told me that ___
had forgotten)
Which third person pronouns are used in each category and
with what relative frequencies? Be prepared to hear
'they/their/them' in addition to the singular pronouns
'she/her/her' and 'he/his/him'.
Does usage vary with any of the social variables noted above
(sex of speaker, etc.). Discuss findings in relation to other
research on the generic masculine (Section 5.1. of syllabus and
additional references in Part II.D. of the Annotated
Bibliography of LGS, pp. 174-181 and in Part IX of LIN 113
Bibliography).
6. Differences in Nonverbal Communication:
Smiling/Frowning and Touching
Observe same-sex and mixed-sex dyads of people interacting
and note differences between each pair in smiling/frowning
behavior and in touching. Who, in terms of sex, age, social
identity, smiles/frowns more frequently at whom? And who
touches whom and what is the nature of the touching
(handshaking, grasping the upper arm, tapping the back of
the other's hand or back, leaning on the other party, etc.).
Find a way of coding your observations so that you will be
able to give some quantitative statements about differences
in body language. Relate findings to some of the literature
on nonverbal communication (see Part IX of the Annotated
Bibliography in LGS, pp. 327-331 and Part XIII of LIN 113
Bibliography).
7. Speech Role Models in Children's Books
Compare several books written for children (perhaps in
different decades--e.g., the 1940's, the 1960s, and the
1980s) looking for differences in speaking portrayed by the
girls and boys in the dialogues--differences relating to
verbosity, content, topic, politeness, etc. Look also for
differences in the adult speaking models--do they parallel
what you find for the children? Relate your findings to
those reported by Nilsen (in section 8.3 of syllabus) and
relevant articles cited in Part XVI of LIN 113 Bibliography.
8. Adult Speech Patterns in Literature
Contrast the dialogue of female and male characters in works
of fiction written by female and male authors who are of
about the same generation and nationality. A sample of four
novels should suffice--two by female and two by male
writers of an equivalent genre (e.g., spy, science fiction,
romance, etc.). Compare your findings with some of that
reported in the research on literary style (Part VI.B. of the
Annotated Bibliography in LGS pp. 300-304 and Part XIV of
LIN 113 Bibliography).
Some Topics that Have Been Examined by LIN 113 Students
in Past Years
Differences in language used to infants
Sexism in popular music lyrics
Sisters sing: the lyrics of African American women singers
The images of woman in popular music
Gender in poetry
Sleeping beauties and sinister stepmothers: How fairy tales
affect childrens' perceptions of gender in society
The influences of Disney movies on children's perceptions of
gender in society
Sex in Seuss: An examination of gender bias in beginner
books
'Girl' vs. 'guy': an analysis of language usage
The depiction of sex role (and language usage) in greeting
cards
Inmates and classmates: What men call women
Gender and conversational practices: A comparison of three
UCD discussion sections
Eye contact: The study of one form of nonverbal
comunication
The dance floor as a laboratory: A study of nonverbal
communication between the sexes
Facial expression: A part of our everyday lives
Techniques of address in four American plays
Women and terms of address in Russian
Hey, nice game, dude! Terms of address in sports
The effects of clothing on terms of address
Interruption patterns on television talk shows
Power surge: The masculine characteristics of female talk-
show hosts
Sex and gender exploitation in the advertising industry
The portrayal of males and females in men's and women's
magazines
The portrayal of women in the media
Media, advertisements, and African American women in
white America
Ferraro, woman candidate: Her treatment by the press
Sexism in sports coverage
Sexism in TV commercials
Sexism in the language of stand-up comedians
Gender perception of American English words
An analysis of female and male language use in describing
attractive people
Beginning writers' conceptions of female/male speech styles.
Dr. Morgan, the Wizard, and Mary: What are women worth
in the comics?
Gendered stereotyped speech in fictional dialogue
Sex differences and stereotypes in science fiction
Confidence in a linguistic form
Linguistic portrayal of gender identity as expressed in
nursery rhymes
Innocent nursery rhymes?
The portrayal of female and male characters in Saturday
morning cartoons
Sociolinguistic analysis of the movie He said/She said
A linguistic perspective on the musical My Fair Lady
A sociolinguistic analysis of Fatal Attraction
Saturday Night Live: A scciolinguistic analysis
Sex stereotyping of animals
The influence of culture on language: A study of two Greek
societies
The generic masculine: Its use and perception by children
A survey of fraternity word usage
A survey of attitudes towards women retaining their birth
names
What's in a name?
Women's and men's joke-telling at UCD
Assessment of sex role stereotypes with regard to
occupations by non-American students studying English:
A study of attitudes
Adolescent sex-role perceptions: A survey of Davis Senior
High School students
The role of sexist language and stereotypes among teenagers
An examination of speech habits in four Davis children
OUTLINE OF BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Textbooks and Anthologies 1
II. Overviews 2
III. Book Reviews 4
IV. Perceptions and Stereotypes about Sex Differences in
Speech 4
V. Studies of Sex Differences in Linguistic Forms
A. Pronunciation/Articulatory Differences 6
B. Grammatical and/or Syntactic Differences 6
C. Lexical Differences 6
D. Differences in the Use/Frequency of Expletives &
Graffitti 7
E. General Studies/Cross-Linguistic Studies. 8
VI. Sex Differences in Conversation and Small-Group
Interaction 9
VII. Issues of Status, Politeness, Power, and "Face" 12
VIII. Conservatism vs. Innovation in Language 13
IX. The Generic Masculine and other Male-as-Norm
Phenomena 14
X. Gender Bias in the Lexicon 15
XI. References to the Sexes 16
XII. Developmental Aspects of Sex Differences in Language 17
XIII. Sex Differences in Nonverbal Communication 19
XIV. Sex Differences/Sexism in Literature 21
XV. Sexism in the Law and Courts 23
XVI. Sexism in Education 23
XVII. Language Usage in the Mass Media 24
XVIII. Language and Feminism 25
XIX. Changing Sexist Language 26
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Textbooks and Anthologies
Berryman, Cynthia L. & Virginia A. Eman, eds. (1980).
Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the
First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Bosmajian, Haig, A. (1974). The Language of Oppression.
Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press.
Brouwer, D. & Dorian de Haan, eds., (1987). Women's
Language, Socialisation and Self-Image. Dordrecht: Foris.
Caldie, Roberta W. (1981). Dominance and Language: A New
Perspective in Sexism. Washington, D.C.: University Press.
Cameron, Deborah (1985). Feminism and Linguistic Theory.
London: Macmillan Press.
______, ed. (1990). The Feminist Critique of Language. A
Reader. New York: Routledge.
Coates, Jennifer (1986). Women, Men, and Language: A
Sociolinguistic Account of Sex New York: Longman.
_____ & Deborah Cameron, eds. (1989). Women in their
Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and
Sex. New York: Longman.
Dubois, Betty Lou & Isabel Crouch, eds. (1976). The
Sociology of the Languages of American Women. San
Antonio, TX: Trinity University.
Eakins, Barbara W. & R. Gene Eakins (1978). Sex Differences
in Human Communication. Palo Alto, CA : Houghton
Mifflin.
Frank, Francine & Frank Anshen (1983). Language and the
Sexes. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Frank, Francine W. & Paula A. Teichler, et al. (1989).
Language, Gender, and Professional Writing: Theoretical
Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York:
The Modern Language Association of America.
Graddol, David & Joan Swann (1989). Gender Voices. New
York: Basil Blackwell.
Hill, Alette Olin (1986). Mother Tongue, Father Time. A
Decade of Linguistic Revolt. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
Kramarae, Cheris (1980). Women and Men Speaking.
Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
_____, ed. (1980). "The Voices and Words of Women and
Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International
Quarterly 3(2/3).
Key, Mary Ritchie (1975). Male/Female Language.
Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press.
Lont, Cynthia M., & Sheryl Friedly, eds. (1989). Beyond
Boundaries: Sex and Gender Diversity in Communication.
Fairfax, VA: George MasonUniversity.
Miller, Barbara D. (1992). Sex and gender hierarchies. New
York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Miller, Casey & Kate Swift (1977). Words and Women. New
York: Anchor Press/Doubleday.
McConnell-Ginet, Sally, Ruth Borker & Nelly Furman, eds.
(1980). Women and Language in Literature and Society.
New York: Praeger.
Nadler, L.B., Nadler, M.K. & W.R. Todd-Mancillas, eds. (1987).
Advances in Gender and Communication. Lanham, MD:
University Press of America.
Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Haig Bosmajian, H. Lee Gershuny & Julia
P. Stanley (1977). Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill:
National Council of Teachers of English.
Orasanu, Judith, Mariam K. Slater & Leonore Loeb Alder, eds.
(1979). Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la difference"
make a difference? New York Academy of Sciences , Vol.
327.
Pearson, J.C. (1985). Gender and Communication. Dubuque,
IA: W.C. Brown.
Penelope, Julia (1990). Speaking Freely. Unlearning the Lies
of the Fathers' Tongues. New York: Pergamon Press.
Penfield, Joyce, ed. (1987). Women and Language in
Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Perry, Linda A.M., Turner, Lynn H. & Helen M. Sterk, eds.
(1992). Constructing and Reconstructing Gender. The
Links among Communication, Language, and Gender.
Albany: State University of New York Press.
Philips, Susan U., Steele, Susan & Christine Tanz, eds. (1987).
Language, Gender, and Sex in Comparative Perspective.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Poynton, Cate (1989). Language and Gender: Making the
Difference. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Spender, Dale (1980). Man Made Language. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.Stewart, L.P. & S. Ting-Toomey,
eds. (1987). Communication, Gender and Sex Roles in
Diverse Interaction Contexts. Norwood NJ: ABLEX.
Thorne, Barrie & Nancy Henley, eds. (1975). Language and
Sex: Difference and Dominance.Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House.
_____, Kramarae, Cheris & Nancy Henley, eds. (1983).
Language, Gender and Society. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House.
Todd, Alexandra & Sue Fisher, eds. (1988). Gender and
Discourse: The Power of Talk. Norwood, NJ: ABLEX.
Vetterling-Braggin, Mary, ed. (1981). Sexist Language: A
Modern Philosophical Analysis. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield,
Adams & Co.
Wofson, Nessa & Joan Manes (1985). The Language of
Inequality. Berlin: Mouton.
Yaguello, Marina (1989). Le sexe des mots. Paris: Belford.
II.Overviews
Beatty, John (1979). Sex, role, and sex role. In Orasanu,
Slater & Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la
difference" make a difference? New York Academy of
Sciences Vol. 327:43-52.
Bodine, Ann (1975). Sex differentiation in language. In
Thorne & Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and
Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 130-149.
Cameron, Deborah (1985). What has gender got to do with
sex? Language and Communication 5(1):19-27.
_____ and Jennifer Coates (1985). Some problems in the
sociolinguistic explanation of sex differences . Language
and Communication 5(3):43-151.
Conklin, Nancy Faires (1980). The language of the majority:
Women and American English. In Margaret A. Lourie &
Nancy F. Conklin, eds., A Pluralistic Nation: The Language
Issue in the United States. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House,
222-237.
DeStafano, Johanna (1975). Women's language: By and
about. In Ordoubadian & von Raffler-Engel eds., Views on
Language. Murfreesboro, TN: Inter-University Publishing,
66-76.
Dundas, Todd & Sue Fischer, eds. (1988). Gender and
Discourse: The Power of Talk. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Eubanks, Sheryle, B. (1975). Sex-based language differences:
A cultural reflection. In Ordoubadian & von Raffler-Engel
eds., Views on Language. Murfreesboro, TN: Inter-
University Publishing, 109-120.
Foss, Karen A. & Sonja K. Foss (1983). The status of research
on women and communication. Communication Quarterly
31(3):195-204.
Frank, Francine W. (1978). Women's language in America.
In D. Burtturff & E.L. Epstein eds., Women's Language and
Style. Akron, OH: L&S Books, 47-61.
Fried, Barbara (1979). Boys will be boys will be boys: The
language of sex and gender. In Ruth Hubbard, Barbara
Henifine, & Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology
Looking at Women. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenchman,
37-59.
Furman, Nelly (1978). The study of women and language:
Comment. Signs 4:182-185.
Goldsmith, Andrea E. (1980). Notes on the tyranny of
language usage. In Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words
of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's
Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):179-192.
Gregersen, Edgar (1979). Sexual linguistics. In J. Orasanu, M.
Slater & L. Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la
diffrence" Make a Difference? New York Academy of
Sciences Vol. 327:3-22.
Haugen, Einar (1977). "Sexism" and the Norwegian language.
In Paul Hopper (ed.), Studies in Descriptive and Historical
Linguistics: Festschrift for Winfred P.Lehmann.
Amsterdam: Benjamins, 83-94.
Henley, Nancy & Barrie Thorne (1977). Womanspeak and
manspeak: Sex differences and sexism in communication,
verbal and nonverbal. In Alice Sargen, ed., Beyond Sex
roles. St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co.
Holmes, Janet (1992). Language and gender: A State-of-the-
Art Survey Article. Language Teaching 24(4).
Jenkins, Mercilee M. & Cheris Kramarae (1981). A thief in
the house: Woman and language. In Dale Spender, ed.,
Men's Studies Modified: The Impact of Feminism on the
Academic Disciplines. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.
Johnson, L. Fern (1983). Political and pedagogical
implicaions of attitudes towards women's language.
Communication Quarterly 31(2):133-138.
Key, Mary Ritchie (1972). Linguistic behavior of male and
female. Linguistics 88:15-31.
Kramarae, Cheris (1975). Women's speech: Separate but
unequal? In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and
Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House, 43-54.
_____ Barrie Thorne & Nancy Henley (1978). Perspectives
on language and communication. Signs 3(3):638-651.
Kramarae, Cheris (1980). Proprieters of language. In S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Border, & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
58-68.
_____ (1989). Feminist theories of communication. In E.
Barnouw, ed., International Encyclopedia of
Communications. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 157-160.
Lakoff, Robin (1973). Language and woman's place.
Language in Society 2(1):45-80.
_____ (1975). Language and Woman's Place. San Francisco:
Harper & Row.
McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1984). The origins of sexist language
in discourse. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
433:123-135.
Nilsen, Alleen Pace (1977). Linguistic sexism as a social
issue. In Nilsen, Bosmajian, Gershuny & Stanley, eds.,
Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of
Teachers of English, 1-26.
Philips, Susan U. (1980). Sex differences and language.
Annual Review of Anthropology 9:523-544.
Pop, Sever (1952). Le langage des femmes: enquete
linguistique a l'echelle mondiale. Orbis 1(1):10-86 and
Orbis 2(1953):7-34.
Saint-Jacques, Bernard (1973). Sex, dependency and
language. La linguistique 9(1):89-96.
Sherzer, Joel (1987). A diversity of voices: men's and
women's speech in ethnographic perspective. In Philips,
Steele & Tanz, eds., Language, Gender, and Sex in
Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 95-120.
Shibamoto, Janet S. (1982). Contributions of sociolinguistics
to the language sciences: Language and Sex. Language
Sciences 4(2):115-153.
Smith, Phillip M. (1980). Sex markers in speech. In K. R.
Scherer & H. Giles, eds., Social Markers in Speech.
Cambridge University Press, 109-246.
Treichler, Paula A. & Francine Wattman Frank (1989).
Introduction: Scholarship, feminism, and language change.
In P.A. Treichler & K.W. Frank, Language, Gender, and
Professional Writing. Theoretical Approaches and
Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: Modern
Language Association, 1-32.
Uchida, Aki (1992). When 'difference' is 'dominance': A
critique of the 'anti-power-based' cultural approach to sex
differences." Language in Society 21(4):547-568.
West, Candace and Don Zimmerman (1985). Gender,
language and discourse. In T.A. van Dijik, ed., Handbook
of Discourse Analysis. London: Academic Press, 103-124.
III. Book Reviews
Brown, Penelope (1976). Women and politeness: A new
perspective on language and society. Review in
Anthropology 3(3):240-249. [Review of Lakoff 1975]
DeFrancisco, Victoria L. (1992). Review of You Just Don't
Understand, by D. Tannen. Language in Society 21(2):319-
323.
DeMott, Benjamin (1976). Review of Words and Women by
C. Miller & K. Swift. The New York Times Book Review
(July 4), p. 8, 12.
Deuchar, Margaret (1987). Feminism and linguistic theory.
Review of Language, Feminism and Linguistics, by Deborah
Cameron. Language and Communication 7(1):77-90.
Eastman, Carol (1978). Review of Language and Sex:
Difference and Dominance, ed. by B. Thorne N. Henley.
American Anthropologist 79(4):348-349.
Henley, Nancy (1978). Review of Words and Women.
Contemporary Psychology 23(3):186.
Hill, Alette (1976). Review of Words and Women. Frontiers
1(3):113-115.
Martyna, Wendy (1978). Review of Language and Sex:
Difference and Dominance. Signs 3(3):704.
McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1975). Our father tongue: Essays in
linguistic politics. Diacritics 5(4):44-50. [Review of Lakoff
1975]
_____ (1983). Review of Language, Sex and Gender: Does "la
Difference" Make a Difference?, ed. by J. Orasanu, M.K.
Slater & L. Loeb Adler and of Sexist Language: A Modern
Philosophoical Analysis, ed. by M. Vetterling-Braggin.
Language 59(2): 888373-391.
Mills, Sara (1988). Do men and women talk differently?
Review of Women, Men and Language by J. Coates.
Language & Communication 8(2):155-158.
Rosaldo, Michelle (1977). Review of Language and Sex:
Difference and Dominance. Language in Society 6(1):110-
113.
Timm, Lenora (1976). Review of Language and Woman's
Place by Robin Lakoff. Lingua 39: 244-252.
Troemel-Ploetz, Senta (1991). Selling the apolitical. Review
of You Just Don't Understand by D. Tannen. Discourse &
Society 2:489-502.
IV. Perceptions and Stereotypes about Sex Differences in
Speech
Ariel, Mira (1988). Female and male stereotypes in Israeli
literature and media: Evidence from introductory
patterns. Language & Communication 8(1):43-68.
Aronovitch, Charles D. (1976). The voice of personality:
Stereotyped judgements and their relation to voice quality
and sex of speaker. Journal of Social Psychology 99:207-
220.
Berryman, Cynthia L. (1980). Attitudes toward male and
female sex-appropriate and sex inappropriate language.
In Berryman & Eman, eds., Communication, Language, and
Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House, 195-216.
Bliese, Nancy W. (1977). Sex-role stereotyping of adjectives.
Bulletin: Women's Studies in Communication 1(2):27-32.
Bradley, P.H. (1981). The folk-linguistics of women's speech:
An empirical examination." Communication Monographs
48:73-90.
Coleman, Ralph O. (1976). A comparison of the contributions
of two voice quality characteristics to the perception of
maleness and femaleness in the voice. Journal of Speech
and Hearing Research 19(1).
Deaux, Kay & Mary Kite (1985). Gender stereotypes: Some
thoughts on the cognitive organization of gender-related
information. Academic Psychology Bulletin 7:123-144.
Eble, Connie (1975). Girl talk: a bicentennial perspective. In
R. Ordoubadian & W. von Raffler-Engel, eds., Views on
Language. Murfreesboro, IN: Inter-University Publishing,
77-86.
_____(1976). If ladies weren't present, I'd tell you what I
really think. In D.L. Shores & C. P. Hines, eds., Papers in
Language Variation: Samlads Collection.University:
University of Alabama Press, 295-301.
_____(1976). Etiquette books as linguistic authority. In P.
Reich, ed., The Second LACUS Forum, 1975. Columbia, SC:
Hornbeam Press, 458-475.
Elyan, Olwen, Philip Smith, Howard Giles & Richard Bourhis
(1978). RP-accented femalespeech: The voice of perceived
androgyny? In P. Trudgill, ed., Sociolinguistic Patterns in
British English. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Giles, Howard & Patricia Marsh (1979). Perceived
masculinity, androgyny and accented speech. Language
Sciences 1(2):301-315.
Haas, Adelaide (1979). Male and female spoken language
types: Stereotypes and evidence. Psychological Bulletin
86(3):616-626.
_____ and Mark A. Sherman (1982). Reported topics of
conversation among same-sex adults. Communication
Quarterly 332-342.
Henton, Caroline (1989). Fact and fiction in the description
of female and male pitch. Language and Communication
9(4)299-311.
Jeffrey, Mildred (1976). Language and sex stereotyping. In
O. Clapp, ed., Responses to Sexism. Urbana, Ill: National
Council of Teachers of English.
Kemper, Susan (1984). When to speak like a lady. Sex Roles
10(5-6):435-443.
Klecka, C.O. & D.V. Heler (1977). Sex-role stereotyping in
English usage. Sex Roles 3(3): 257-263.
Kramerae, Cheris (1977). Perceptions of female and male
speech. Language and Speech 20)2):151-161.
_____ (1978). Women's and men's ratings of their own and
ideal speech. Communication Quarterly 26(2):1-12.
Packer, Jaclyn (1986). Sex differences in perception of
street harassment. Women and Therapy 5:331-338.
Philipsen, Gerry (1975). Speaking 'like a man' in
Teamsterville: Culture patterns in role enactment in an
urban neighbourhood. Quarterly Journal of Speech 61:13-
22.
Rakos, Lana F. (1991). Gender on the Line: Women, the
Telephone, and Community Life. Champaign, IL:
University of Illinois Press.
Rasmussen, Jeffrey Lee & Barbara E. Moley (1986).
Impression formation as a function of the sex role
appropriateness of linguistic behavior. Sex Roles
14(3/4):149-161.
Rosenkrantz, P., et al. (1968). Sex-role stereotypes and self-
concepts in college students. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology 32(3):287-295.
Shibamoto, Janet S. (1987). The womanly woman:
Manipulation of stereotypical and non-stereotypical
features of Japanese female speech. In S.U. Philips, S.
Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender & Sex in
Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 26-49.
Shimanoff, Susan B. (1983). The role of gender in linguistic
references to emotive states. Communication Quarterly
31(3):174-179.
Stivers, Camilla (1992). 'Look like a lady, act like a man':
The dilemma of leadership. Chapter 4 of C. Stivers, Gender
Images in Public Administration. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Warshay, Diana W. (1972). Sex differences in language style.
In C. Savilios-Rothschild, ed., Toward a Sociology of
Women. Lexington, Mass.: Xerox College Publishing, 3-9.
Williams, J.E., H. Giles & J.R. Edwards (1977). Comparative
analyses of sex-trait stereotypes in the United States,
England, and Ireland. In Y.H. Poortinga, ed., Basic
Problems in Cross-Cultural Psychology. Amsterdam:
Swets & Zeitlander.
V. Studies of Sex Differences in Linguistic Forms
A. Pronunciation/Articulatory Differences
Austin, William M. (1965). Some social aspects of
paralanguage. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 11(1):31-39.
Benjamin, Barbaranne J. (1986). Dimensions of the older
female voice. Language & Communication 6(1/2):35-46.
Brend, Ruth (1975). Male-female intonation patterns in
American English. In B. Thorne & N. Henley , eds.,
Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House, 84-87.
Edelsky, Carole (1979). Question intonations and sex roles.
Language in Society 8(1):15-32.
Emanuel, F. & A. Scarzini (1979). Vocal register effects on
vowel spectral noise and roughness: Findings for adult
females. Journal of Communication Disorders 12(3):263-
272.
Haas, Mary (1944). Men's and women's speech in Koasati.
Language 20:142-149.
Henton, Caroline G. & R.A.W. Bladon (1985). Breathiness in
normal female speech: Inefficiency versus desirability.
Language and Communication 5(3):221-227.
Hu, Mingyang (1991). Feminine accent in the Beijing
vernacular: A sociolinguistic investigation. Journal of the
Chinese Langauge Teachers Association 26(1):49-54.
Kimball, Geoffrey (1987). Men's and women's speech in
Koasati: A reappraisal. International Journal of American
Linguistics 53(1):30-38.
Kroskrity, Paul (1983). On male and female speech in the
Pueblo southwest. International Journal of American
Linguistics 49(1):88-90.
McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1978). Intonation in a man's world.
Signs 3(3):541-559.
Sachs, Jacqueline, Lieberman, Philip and Donna Erickson
(1973). Anatomical and cultural determinants of male and
female speech. In R.W. Shuy and R.W. Fasold, eds.,
Language Attitudes: Curent Trends and Prospects.
Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 74-84.
Taylor, Allan (1982). 'Male' and 'female' speech in Gros
Ventre. Anthropological Linguistics 24(3):301-307.
Trudgill, Peter (1975). Sex, covert prestige, and linguistic
change in the urban English of Norwich. In B. Thorne & N.
Henley , eds., Language and Sex: Difference and
Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 88-103.
Tuomi, S.K. & J. Fischer (1979). Characteristics of simulated
sexy voice. Folia Phoniatrica 31: 242-249.
Williams, Lynn (1983). The pronunciation of women: Some
Spanish evidence. Language & Communication 3(2):171-
190.
B. Grammatical and/or Syntactic Differences
Barron, Nancy (1971). Sex-typed language: The production
of grammatical cases. Acta Sociologica 14(1-2):24-42.
Cameron, Deborah, Fiona McAlinden & Kathy O'Leary (1989).
Lakoff in context: The social and linguistic functions of tag
questions. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their
Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and
Sex. New York: Longman, 74-93.
Conners, Kathleen (1971). Studies in feminine agentives in
selected European languages. Romance Philology 24: 573-
598.
Dubois, Betty Lou & Isabel Crouch (1975). The question of
tag questions in women's speech: They don't really use
more of them, do they? Language in Society 4(3):289-294.
Hill, Janet H. (1987). Women's speech in modern Mexicano.
In S. Philips, S. Steele, & C. Tanz, eds. Language, Gender,
and Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 121-160.
Nissen, Uwe Kjr (1986). Sex and gender specification in
Spanish. Journal of Pragmatics 10(6):725-738.
Ordoubadian, Reza (1979). Sexism and language structure.
In W. Wlck & P. L. Garvin, eds., The Fifth LACUS Forum
1978. Columbia, SC: Hornbeam Press, 415-421.
Windfield, Helen R., Chandler, Margaret A. & Darryl L.
Bassett (1989). Tag questions and powerfulness:
Quantitative and qualitative analyses of a course of
psychotherapy. Language in Society 18(1):77-86.
C. Lexical Differences
Abu-Haidar, Farida (1989). Are Iraqi women more
prestige conscious than men? Sex differentiation in
Baghdadi Arabic. Language in Society 18(4):471-481.
Bakir, M. (1986). Sex differences in the approximation to
standard Arabic: A case study. Anthropological
Linguistics 28(1):3-9.
Brouwer, Dede, Marinel Gerritsen & Dorian de Haan (1979).
Speech differences between women and men: On the
wrong track? Language in Society 8(1):33-50.
Cherry, Kittredge (1987). Womansword: What Japanese
words say about women. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Edwards, A.D. (1976). Social class and linguistic choice.
Sociology 10:101-110.
Edwards, Viv (1989). The speech of British Black women in
Dudley, West Midlands. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds.,
Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on
Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 33-50.
Holmes, Janet (1986). Functions of 'you know' in women's
and men's speech. Language in Society 15(1):1-22.
______ (1988). Of course: a pragmatic particle in New
Zealand women's and men's speech. Australian Journal of
Linguistics. 8: 49-74.
______ (1988). Sort of in New Zealand women's and men's
speech. Studia Linguistica 42:2.
______ (1990). Hedges and boosters in women's and men's
speech. Language & Communication 10(3):185-206.
Holmquist, J.C. (1985). Social correlates of a linguistic
variable: A study in a Spanish village. Language in
Society 14(2):191-204.
Mills, Jane (1989). Womanwords. New York: Longman. [A
dictionary on the origin & development of over 300 words
used for and about women]
Nowaczyk, Ronald H. (1982). Sex-related differences in
colour lexicon. Language and Speech 25(3):257-265.
Sanders, J.S. & W.L. Robinson (1979). Talking and not talking
about sex: Male and female vocabularies. Journal of
Communication 29(2):2-30.
Singer, D., J. Avedon, R. Hering, A. McCann & C. Sacks (1977).
Sex differences in the vocabulary of college students. The
Journal of Sex Research 13:267-273.
Steckler, Nicole A. & William E. Cooper (1980). Sex
differences in color naming of unisex apparel.
Anthropological Linguistics 22(9):373-381.
Swacker, Marjorie (1975). The sex of the speaker as a
sociolinguistic variable. In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds. ,
Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House, 76-83.
D. Differences in the Use/Frequency of Expletives and Graffitti
Arluke, Arnold, Kutakoff, Lanny, and Jack Levin (1987). Are
the times changing? An analysis of gender differences in
sexual graffiti. Sex Roles 16(1/2):1-8.
Bailey, Lee Ann & Lenora A. Timm (1976). More on
women's--and men's--expletives. Anthropological
Linguistics 18(9):438-449.
Bruner, Edward M. & Jane Paige Kelso (1980). Gender
differences in graffiti: A semiotic perspective. Women's
Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):239-252.
Cole, Caroline M. (1991). 'Oh wise women of the stalls....'
Discourse & Society 2(4):401-411.
Coyne, James C., Richard C. Sherman & Karen O'Brien (1978).
Expletives and woman's place. Sex Roles 4:827-835.
De Klerk, Vivian (1990). Slang: A male domain? Sex Roles
22(9/10):589-606.
______ (1991). Expletives: Men only? Communications
Monographs 58:156-169.
______ (1992). How taboo are taboo words for girls?
Language in Society 21(2):277-290.
Fine, Marlene G. & Fern L. Johnston (1984). Female and male
motives for using obscenity. Journal of Language and Social
Psychology 3(1):59-74.
Hopper, Robert, Larry G. Coleman & John A. Daly (1980).
Expletives and androgyny. Anthropological Linguistics
22(3):131-137.
Hughes, Susan E. (1992). Expletives of lower working-class
women. Language in Society 21(2): 291-304.
Jay, Timothy (1992). Cursing in America. Philadelphia:
John Benjamins.
Oliver, M.M. & Joan Rubin (1975). The use of expletives by
some American women. Anthropological Linguistics
17(5):191-208.
Rieber, Robert W., Carl Wiedemann & Jeanette d'Amato
(1979). Obscenity: Its frequency and context of usage as
compared in males, nonfeminist females, and feminist
females. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research
8(3):201-223.
Risch, Barbara (1987). Women's derogatory terms for men:
That's right, "dirty" words. Language in Society 16(3):353-
358.
Selnow, Gary W. (1985). Sex differences in uses and
perception of profanity. Sex Roles 12(3/4): 303-312.
Staley, Constance (1978). Male-female use of expletives: A
heck of a difference in expectations. Anthropological
Linguistics 29(8):367-380.
Wilson, Eileen (1974). Men's Language and Women's
Language: Up against the Wall. Unpublished M.A. thesis,
UC Davis.
E. General Studies/Cross-Linguistic Studies
Bell, Amelia R. (1990). Separate people: Speaking of Creek
men and women. American Anthropologist 92:332-345.
Blakar, R.M. (1979). How sex roles are represented,
reflected, and conserved in the Norwegian language. In R.
Rommetveit & R.M. Blakar, eds., Studies of Language,
Thought, and Verbal Communication. New York: Academic
Press.
Brouwer, Dd (1989). Gender variation in Dutch: A
sociolinguistic Study of Amsterdam Speech. Dordrecht:
Foris.
Crosby, Faye & Linda Nyquist (1977). The female register:
An empirical study of Lakoff's hypotheses. Language in
Society 6:313-322.
DeStefano, Johanna S. (1979). Sex differences in languages:
A cross-national perspective with emphasis on English.
Language Sciences 1(2):316-324.
Dixon, Roland, B. & Alfred L. Kroeber (1903). The native
languages of California. American Anthropologist 5(1):1-
26. [Sex differences are discussed on p. 15.]
Flannery, Regina (1946). Men's and women's speech in Gros
Ventre. International Journal of American Linguistics
12:133-135.
Furfey, P.H. (1944). Men's and women's language. American
Catholic Sociological Review 5:218-223.
Grootaers, William A. (1952). Quelques remarques
concernant la langage des femmes. Orbis 1:82-83.
_____(1952). Differences entre langage masculin et feminin.
Orbis 1:84-85.
Jabbra, Nancy W. (1980). Sex roles and language in Lebanon.
Ethnology 19(4):459-474.
Klans, Flora (1924). Die Frauensprache bei den primitiven
Vlkern. Imago 10:215; 296-313.
Kramer, Cheris (1974). Folk-linguistics: Wishy-washy
mommy talk. Psychology Today 8(1):32-85.
Lasch, Richard (1907). Uber Sondersprachen und ihre
Entstehung: I, Frauensprachen.Anthropologische
Gesellschaft in Vienna. Mitteil 37:89-101.
McMillan, Julie R., A. Clifton, Diane McGrath, & Wanda S. Gale
(1977). Women's language: Uncertainty or interpersonal
sensitivity and emotionality? Sex Roles 3(6):545-559.
Moore, Samule F., Shaffer, Leigh, Goodsell, Dorothy & Greg
Baringoldz (1983). Gender or situationally determined
spoken language differences? The case of the leadership
situation. International Journal of Women's Studies
6(1):44-53.
Parsons, Elsie Clews (1913). The Old-Fashioned Woman:
Primitive Fantasies about Sex. New York: Putnam's Sons.
[Includes a chapter entitled "Sex Dialects".]
Pottier, Bernard (1972). Langage des hommes et langage des
femmes en cocama. In Jacqueline M.C. Thomas &
Lucien Bernot, eds., Langues et Techniques, Nature et
Societe. Paris: Klincksieck.
Saada, Lucienne (1970). Le langage des femmes tunisiennes.
In David Cohen, ed., Melanges Marcel Cohen: Etudes de
linguistique, ethnographie et sciences connexes offertes
par ses amis et ses eleves a l'occasion de son
80eme anniversaire. The Hague: Mouton, 320-235.
Taylor, Allan (1982). "Male" and "female" speech in Gros
Ventre. Anthropological Linguistics 24(3):301-307.
Thomas, Beth (1989). Differences of sex and sects:
Linguistic variation and social networks in a Welsh mining
village. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their
Speech Communities. New Perpectives on Language and
Sex. New York: Longman, 51-60.
Troemel-Ploetz, Senta (1982). Frauensprache: Sprache der
Vernderung. Frankfurt: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag.
VI. Sex Differences in Conversation and Small-Group
Interaction
Ainsworth-Vaughn, Nancy (1992). Topic transitions in
physician-patient interviews: Power, gender, and
discourse change. Language in Society 21(3):409-426.
Albrecht, Terrance & Ralph E. Cooley (1980). Androgyny
and communication strategies for relational dominance:
An empirical analysis. In D. Nimmo,ed., Communication
Yearbook 4. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction
Books, 699-719.
Aries, Elizabeth (1976). Interaction patterns and themes of
males, females, and mixed groups. Small Group Behavior
7(1):7-18.
Beattie, Geoffrey W. (1981). Interruption in conversational
interaction, and its relation to the sex and status of the
interactants. Linguistics 19:15-35.
Bernard, Jessie (1973). Talk, conversation, listening and
silence. In J. Bernard, The Sex Game. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Bilous, Frances R. & Robert M. Krauss (1988). Dominance and
accommodation in the conversational behaviours of same-
and mixed-gender dyads. Language and Communication
8(3/4): 183-195.
Brown, Penelope & Stephen Levinson (1978). Universals in
language usage: Politeness phenomena. In E. Goody, ed.,
Questions and Politeness. London: Cambridge University
Press, 256-289.
Coates, Jennifer (1989). Gossip revisited: Language in all-
female groups. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in
their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language
and Sex. New York: Longman, 94-122.
Crawford, Mary & Roger Chaffin (1987). Effects of gender
and topic on speech style. Journal of Psycholinguistic
Research 16(1):83-89.
Crosby, Faye, Paul Jose, & William Wong-McCarthy (1981).
Gender, androgyny, and conversational assertiveness. In C.
Mayo & N. Henley, eds., Gender and Nonverbal Behavior.
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Crow, Brian (1983). Topic shifts in couples' conversations.
In R. T. Craig & K. Tracy, eds., Conversational Coherence:
Form, Structure and Strategy. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Deakins, Alice H., C. Osterink, & T. Hoey (1987). Topics in
same sex and mixed sex conversations. In L.B. Nadler, et
al. (eds.), Advances in Gender and Communication
Research. Lanham, MD: University Press of America,
89-107.
de Boer, Mieke (1987). Sex differences in language:
Observations of dyadic conversations between members of
the same sex. In D. Brouwer & D. de Haan (eds.), Women's
Language, Socialization and Self-Image, pp. 148-163.
Dindia, Kathryn (1987). The effects of sex of subject and sex
of partner on interruptions. Human Communication
Research 13(3):345-371.
Drass, Kriss A. (1986). The effect of gender identity on
conversation. Social Psychology Quarterly 49(4):294-301.
Eakins, Barabara & Gene Eakins (1976). Verbal turn-taking
and exchanges in faculty dialogue. In B.L. Dubois & I.
Crouch, eds., The Sociology of the Languages of American
Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University, 53-63.
Edelsky, Carol (1981). Who's got the floor? Language in
Society 10(3):383-422.
Ehrenreich, Barbara (1981). The politics of talking in
couples: Conversus interruptus and other disorders. Ms.
(May):46-48.
Fine, Marlene G. (1981). Soap opera conversations: The talk
that binds. Journal of Comunication 31(3):97-107.
Fishman, Pamel (1978). Interaction: The work women do.
Social Problems 25:397-406.
_____(1978). What do couples talk about when they're
alone? In D. Burrtturff & E.L. Epstein, eds., Women's
Language and Style. Akron, OH: L&S Books, 11-22.
Gubb, Jenny (1980). Language and role in mixed- and
single-sex groups. Language for Learning 2(1):3-10.
Gnthner, Susanne (1992). The construction of gendered
discourse in Chinese-German interactions. Discourse &
Society 3(2):167-191.
Haas, Adelaide and Mark A. Sherman(1982). Reported topics
of conversation among same-sex adults. Communication
Quarterly 30:332-342.
Harding, Susan (1975). Women and words in a Spanish
village. In R. Reiter, ed., Towards an Anthropology of
Women. New York: Monthly Review Press, 283-308.
Holmes, Janet (1987). Hedging, fencing and other
conversational gambits: An analysis of gender differences
in New Zealand speech. In A. Pauwels, ed., Women and
Language in Australian and New Zealand society. Sydney:
Australian Professional Publics., 59-79.
_____ (1992). Women's talk in public contexts. Discourse &
Society 3(2):131-150.
Jones, Deborah (1980). Gossip: Notes on women's oral
culture. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of
Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies
International Quarterly 3(2/3):193-198.
Kennedy, Carol W. and Carl T. Camden (1981). Gender
differences in interruption behavior: A dominance
perspective. International Journal of Women's Studies
4(2):135-142.
_____& _____ (1983). A new look at interruption. Western
Journal of Speech Communication 47:45-58.
Kuiper, Koenraad (1991). Sporting formulae in New Zealand
English: Two models of male solidarity. In J. Cheshire, ed.,
English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives.
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 200-209.
Lacoste, M. (1981). The old woman and the doctor: A
contribution to the analysis of unequal linguistic
exchanges. Journal of Pragmatics 5:169-180.
Leet-Pellegrini, Helena (1980). Conversational dominance as
a function of gender and expertise. In H. Giles, W. P.
Robinson & Philip Smith, eds., Language: Social
Psychological Perspectives. Oxford: Pergamon, 97-104.
Leto DeFrancisco, Victoria (1991). The sounds of silence:
How men silence women in marital relations. Discourse &
Society 2(4):413-423.
Levin, Jack & Arnold Arluke (1985). An exploratory
analysis of sex differences in gossip. Sex Roles
12(3/4):218-286.
Maltz, Daniel & Ruth A. Borker (1982). A cultural approach
to male-female miscommunication. In J.J. Gumperz, ed.,
Language and Social Identity. New York: Cambridge Univ.
Press, 196-216.
Mann, Brenda J. (1971). Bar talk. In J.P. Spradley & D.W.
McCurdy, eds., Conformity and Conflict: Readings in
Cultural Anthropology, 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown &
Co., 101-111.
Markel, N.N., Prebor, L.D. and J.F. Brandt (1972). Biosocial
factors in dyadic communication: Sex and speaking
intensity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
23(1):11-13.
Martin, Judith N. & Robert T. Craig (1983). Selected linguistic
sex differences during initial social interactions of same-
sex and mixed-sex student dyads. Western Journal of
Speech Communication 47:16-28.
_____, Long, J.F. and T.J. Saine (1976). Sex effects in
conversational interaction: Another look at male
dominance. Human Communication Research 2(4):356-
364.
Mayes, Sharon S. (1979). Women in positions of authority:
A case study of changing sex roles. Signs 4(3):556-568.
Montgomery, Barbara M. and Robert W. Norton (1981). Sex
differences and similarities in communicator style.
Communication Monographs 48:121-132.
Morse, Benjamine W. and Virginia A. Eman (1980). The
construct of androgyny: An overview and implications for
research. In C. L. Berryman & V.A. Eman, eds.,
Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of
the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House, 76-90.
Octigan, Mary and Sharon Niederman (1979). Male
dominance in conversations. Frontiers 4(1):50-54.
Parlee, Mary Brown (1979). Conversational Politics.
Psychology Today (May):48-56.
Pfeiffer, John (1985). Girl talk, boy talk. Science 85
(February):58-63.
Preisler, Bent (1986). Linguistic Sex Roles in Conversation:
Social Variation in the Expression of Tentativeness in
English. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Rakow, Lana F. (1991). Gender on the Line: Women, the
Telephone, and Community Life. Champaign-Urbana:
University of Illinois Press.
Rysman, Alexander (1977). How the "gossip" becomes a
woman. Journal of Communication 27(12):176-180.
Singh, Rajendra & Jayant K. Lele (1990). Language, power,
and cross-sex communication strategies in Hindi and
Indian English revisited. Language in Society 19(4):541-
546. [A rebuttal of Valentine (1985)]
Steinham, Gloria (1981). The politics of talking in groups:
How to win the game and change the rules. Ms. (May):43,
45, 85-89.
Strodtbeck, R.L. (1956). Sex role differentiation in jury
deliberations. Sociometry 19:3-11.
Suls, Jerry M. (1977). Gossip as social comparison. Journal
of Communication 27(1):164-168.
Swacker, Marjorie (1976). Women's verbal behavior at
learned and professional conferences. In B.L. Dubois & I.
Crouch, eds., The Sociology of the Languages of American
Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University, 155-160.
Swann, Joan (1989). Talk control: An illustration from the
classroom of problems in analysing male dominance of
conversation. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in
their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on
Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 122-140.
Talbot, Mary (1988). The operation was a success:
Unfortunately the patient died. A comment on 'Women
and men speaking at the same time' by Murray and
Covelli. Journal of Pragmatics 12:113-114.
Tannen, Deborah (1982). Ethnic style in male-female
conversation. In John J. Gumperz (ed.), Language and
Social Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
217-231.
_____ (1990). You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men
in Conversation. New York: William Morrow & Co.
Tiger, Virginia and Gina Luria (1978). Inlaws/outlaws: The
language of women. In D. Burtturff and E.L. Epstein,eds.,
Women's Language and Style. Akron, OH: L& S Books,
1-10.
Valentine, Tamara (1985). Sex, power and linguistic
strategies in the Hindi language. Studies in the Linguistic
Sciences 15(1):195-211.
West, Candace (1979). Against our will: Male interruptions
of females in cross-sex conversation. In J. Orasanu, M.
Slater & L. Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la
difference" make a difference? New York Academy of
Sciences Vol. 327:81-100.
______ (1984). When the doctor is a 'lady': Power, status
and gender in physician-patient dialogues. Symbolic
Interaction 7:85-105.
______ (1985). Routine Complications. Troubles with Talk
between Doctors and Patients. Bloomington, Indiana:
Indiana University Press.
______ (1990). Not just 'doctors orders': directive-response
sequences in patients' visits to women and men physicians.
Discourse & Society 1(1):85-112,
______ & Angela Garcia (1988). Conversational shift work: A
study of topical transitions between women and men.
Social Problems 35:551-575.
Wiley, Mary Glenn and Dale E. Woolley (1988).
Interruptions among equals: Power plays that fail. Gender
& Society 2(1):90-102.
Withers, Jean (1975). Don't talk while I'm interrupting. Ms.
(March):106.
Wodak, Ruth (1981). Women relate, men report: Sex
differences in language behavior in a therapeutic group.
Journal of Pragmatics 5:261-286.
Wood, Marion (1966). The influence of sex and knowledge
of communication effectiveness on spontaneous speech.
Word 22:112-137.
Woods, Nicola (1988). Talking shop: Sex and status as
determinants of floor apportionment in a work setting. In
J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech
Communities. London: Longman, 141-157.
Yerkovich, Sally (1977). Gossiping as a way of speaking.
Journal of Communication 27(1): 192-196.
Zimmerman, Don and Candace West (1975). Sex roles,
interruptions and silences in conversation. In B. Thorne &
N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and
Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 105-129.
VII. Issues of Status, Politeness, Power, and "Face"
Aiken, Lewis & Richard L. Zweigenhaft (1978). Signature
size, sex, and status in Iran. Journal of Social Psychology
106:273-274.
Arveda Kissling, Elizabeth (1991). Street harassment: The
language of sexual terrorism. Discourse & Society 2(4):451-
460.
Baroni, M.R. & V. D'Urso (1984). Some experimental findings
about the question of politeness and women's speech.
Language in Society 13:67-72.
Brown, Penelope (1980). How and why are women more
polite: Some evidence from a Mayan community. In S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York:
Praeger, 111-136.
_____ (1990). Gender, politeness and confrontation in
Tenejapa. Discourse Processes 13(1): 123-141.
Brouwer, Dde (1982). The influence of the addressee's sex
on politeness in language use. Linguistics 20:697-711.
Callary, R.E. (1974). Status perception through syntax.
Language and Speech 17(2):187-192.
Deuchar, Margaret (1989). A pragmatic account of women's
use of standard speech. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds.,
Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on
Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 27-32.
Gardner, Carol B. (1984). 'Passing by': Street remarks,
address rights, and the urban female. In John Baugh &
Joel Scherzer (eds.), Language in Use: Readings in
Sociolinguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
148-164.
Gibbons, P., J. Busch & J.J. Bradac (1992). Powerful versus
powerless language: Consequences for persuasion,
impression formation and cognitive response. Journal of
Language and Social Psychology 11(3):
Henley, Nancy M. & Cheris Kramarae (1991). Gender, power
and miscommunication. In Nicolas Coupland, ed.,
Miscommunication and Problematic Talk. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
Herbert, Robert K. (1990). Sex-based differences in
compliment behavior. Language in Society 19(2):201-224.
Hoar, Nancy (1992). Genderlect, powerlect, and politeness.
In L.A.M. Perry, L.H. Turner, & H.M. Sterk, eds.
Constructing and Reconstructing Gender. The Links Among
Communication, Language, and Gender. Albany:
State University of New York, 127-136.
Jorden, Eleanor H. (1974). Language--female and feminine.
In B. Hoffer, ed., Proceedings of a U.S.-Japan
Sociolinguistics Meeting. San Antonio, TX: Trinity
University, 57-71.
Keenan, Elinor (1974). Norm-makers, norm-breakers: Uses
of speech by men and women in a Malagasy community.
In J. Sherzer & R. Baumann, eds., Explorations in the
Ethnography of Speaking. New York: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 126-143.
Lee, Matoko Y. (1976). The married woman's status and role
as reflected in Japanese: An exploratory sociolinguistic
study. Signs 1(4):991-999.
Liska, Jo Walker, Elizabeth Mechling & Susan Stathas (1981).
Differences in subjects' perceptions of gender and
believability between users of deferential and non-
deferential language. Communication Quarterly
29(12):40-48.
Martin, Samuel (1964). Speech levels in Japan and Korea. In
D. Hymes, ed., Language in Culture and Society. New York:
Harper & Row, 407-415.
Miller, Roy Andrew (1967). The Japanese Language.
Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Muhlhausler, Peter (1991). Watching girls pass by in Tok
Pisin. In J. Cheshire, ed., English around the world;
Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Press, 637-646.
Noller, Patricia (1993). Gender and emotional
communication in marriage: Different cultures or
differential power? Journal of Language and Social
Psychology 12(1-2):
O'Barr, William & Bowman K. Atkins (1980). "Women's
language" or "powerless language"? In S. McConnell-Ginet,
R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in
Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 93-110.
Preston, Kathleen & Kimberly Stanley (1987). 'What's the
worst thing...?' Gender-directed insults. Sex Roles
17(3/4):209-220.
Sheehan, J.G. (1979). Level of aspiration in female
stutterers: Changing times. Journal of Speech and Hearing
Disorders 44(4):479-486.
Shibamoto, Janet (1985). Japanese Women's Language.
Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Smith (Shibamoto), Janet (1992). Women in charge:
Politeness and directives in the speech of Japanese women.
Language in Society 21(1):59-82.
Sherchock, Linda (1980). Psychological sex and rhetorical
sensitivity. Implications for organizational communication.
In C. Berryman & V. Eman, eds., Communication,
Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual
Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 91-111.
Shick Case, Susan (1988). Cultural differences, not
deficiencies: An analysis of managerial women's language.
In S. Rose & L. Larwood, eds., Women's Careers: Pathways
and Pitfalls. New York: Praeger, 41-63.
Smith-Heffner, Nancy J. (1988). Women and politeness: The
Javanese example. Language in Society 17(4):535-554.
Takahara, Kumiko (1991). Female speech patterns in
Japanese. International Journal of the Sociology of
Language 92: 61-85.
Wetzel, Patricia J. (1988). Are 'powerless' communication
strategies the Japanese norm? Language in Society
17(4):555-564.
Wood, L.S. & R.O. Kroger (1992). Politeness and forms of
address. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 11(3):
Woods, Nicola (1989). Talking shop: Sex and status as
determinants of floor apportionment in a work setting. In
J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech
Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex.
New York: Longman, 141-157.
VIII. Conservatism vs. Innovation in Language
Ashby, William (1981). The loss of the negative particle 'ne'
in French. Language 57(3):674-687.
Baker, Murtadha (1986). Sex differences in approximation
to Standard Arabic: A case study. Anthropological
Linguistics 28(1):73-79.
Gal, Susan (1978). Peasant men can't get wives: Language
change and sex roles in a bilingual community. Language
in Society 7(1):1-16.
Medecine, Bea (1987). The role of American Indian women
in cultural continuity and transition. In J. Penfield, ed.,
Women and Language in Transition. Albany: State
University of New York Press, 159-166.
Nichols, Patricia C. (1976). Black women in the rural south:
Conservative and innovative. In B.L. Dubois & I.
Crouch, eds., The Sociology of the Languages of American
Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University, 103-114.
_____(1980). Women in their speech communities. In S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
140-149.
Patella, Victoria M. & William Kuvlesky (1973). Situational
variation in language patterns of Mexican-American boys
and girls. Social Science Quarterly 53(4):855-864.
Sol, Yolanda R. (1976). Sociocultural and sociopsychological
factors in different language retentiveness by sex. In B.L.
Dubois & I. Crouch, eds., The Sociology of the Languages of
American Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University,
137-154.
Troy, Jakeline (1987). The role of Aboriginal women in the
development of contact languages in New South Wales:
From the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century.
In A. Pauwels, ed., Women and Language in Australian
and New Zealand Society. Sydney: Australian Professional
Publications, 155-169.
Whiteford, L. (1980). Mexican-American women as
innovators. In M. Melville, ed., Twice a Minority. St. Louis:
The C .V. Mosby Co., 109-126.
Zentella, Ana Celia (1987). Language and female identity in
the Puerto Rican community. In J. Penfield, ed., Women
and Language in Transition. Albany: State University of
New York Press, 167-179.
IX. The Generic Masculine and other Male-as-norm
Phenomena
Baron, Dennis (1981). The epicene pronoun: The word that
failed. American Speech 56: 83-97.
Bendix, Edward H. (1979). Linguistic models as political
symbols: Gender and the generic 'he' in English. In J.
Orasnu, M.K. Slater & L.L. Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and
Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference?
New York Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:23-42.
Bodine, Ann (1975). Androcentrism in prescriptive
grammar: Singular 'they', sex-indefinite 'he' and 'he or
she'. Language in Society 4(2):129-146.
Beardsley, Elizabeth (1973-74). Referential genderization.
Philosophical Forum 5(1/2): 285-293.
Cooper, Robert (1984). The avoidance of androcentric
generics. International Journal of the Sociology of
Language 50:5-20.
Crawford, M. & L. English (1984). Generic versus specific
inclusion of women in language: Effects on recall. Journal
of Psycholinguistic Research 13:373-381.
Dubois, Betty Lou & Isabel Crouch (1979). Man and its
compounds in recent profeminist American English
published prose. Papers in Linguistics 12(1/2):261ff.
Gastil, John (1990). Generic pronouns and sexist langauge:
The oxymoronic character of masculine generics. Sex
Roles 23:629-643.
Green, William H. (1977). Singular pronouns and sexual
politics. College Composition and Communication 28:150-
153.
Greene, K. & D.L. Rubin (1991). Effects of gender
inclusive/exclusive language in religious discourse.
Journal of Language and Social Psychology 10(2):
Hofstadter, Douglas (1985). Changes in default words and
images, engendered by rising consciousness. In D.
Hofstadter, Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence
of Mind and Pattern. New York: Basic Books, 136-158.
Hook, Donald (1989). Gender and number in American
English personal pronouns. International Review of
Applied Linguistics 27(1):64-66.
-------- (1991). Toward an English epicene pronoun.
International Review of Applied Linguistics 29(4):331-339.
Huber, Joan (1976). On the generic use of male pronouns.
The American Sociologist 11(2):89.
Jacobson, Marxha B. & William R. Insko, Jr. (1985). Use of
nonsexist pronouns as a function of one's feminist
orientaion. Sex Roles 13(11/2):1-7.
Khosroshahi, F. (1989). Penguins don't care, but women do:
A social identity analysis of a Whorfian problem.
Language in Society 18(4):505-525.
Korsmeyer, Carolyn (1977). The hidden joke: Generic uses
of masculine terminology. In M. Vetterling-Braggin, F.
Elliston & J. English, eds., Feminism and Philosophy.
Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams, and Co.
MacKay, Donald (1980). On the goals, principles, and
procedures for prescriptive grammar: Singular 'they'.
Language in Society 9(3):349-367.
_____(1980). Personification and the pronoun problem. In
C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and
Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International
Quarterly 3(2/3):149-164.
Martyna, Wendy (1978). What can 'he' mean? Exploring our
use of the generic masculine. Journal of Communication
28(1):131-138.
_____(1980). The psychology of the generic masculine. In S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
69-78.
Mathiot, Madeleine (1979). Sex roles as revealed through
referential gender in American English. In M. Mathiot, ed.,
Ethnolinguistics: Boas, Sapir, and Whorf Revisited. The
Hague: Mouton, 1-48.
McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1979). Prototypes, pronouns, and
persons. In M.Mathiot, ed., Ethnolinguistics: Boas, Sapir,
and Whorf Revisited. The Hague: Mouton, 63-84.
Moulton, Janice , G.M. Robinson & C. Elias (1978). Sex bias in
language use: 'Neutral' pronouns that aren't. American
Psychologist 33:1032-1036.
Newman, Michael (1992). Pronominal disagreements: The
stubborn problem of singular epicene antecedents.
Language in Society 21(3):447-476.
Rubin, Donald & Kathryn Greene (1991). Effects of biological
and psychological gender, age cohort, and interviewer
gender on attitudes toward gender inclusive/exclusive
language. Sex Roles 24:391-412.
Salter, Marty M, Deborah Weider-Hatfield, & Donald L. Rubin
(1983). Generic pronoun use and perceived speaker
credibility. Communication Quarterly 31(2):180-183.
Schneider, Joseph & Sally Hacker (1973). Sex role
stereotyping and use of the generic 'man' in introductory
texts: A case study of the sociology of sociology. The
American Sociologist 8:12-18.
Silveira, Jeanette (1980). Generic masculine words and
thinking. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of
Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies
International Quarterly 3(2/3):165-178.
Stanley, Julia P. (1977). Gender-marking in American
English. In A.P. Nilsen, et al., eds., Sexism and Language.
Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 43-76.
Treichler, Paula A. & Francine Wattman Frank (1989).
Common problems in sexist usage. In F.W. Frank & P.A.
Treichler, eds., Language, Gender, and Professional Writing:
Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist
Usage. New York: The Modern Language Association of
America, 141-226.
Trenholm, Sarah & W. Todd-de-Mancillas (1980). The
effects of sexist language on interpersonal judgments. In
C. Berryman & V. Eman, eds., Communication, Language,
and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference.
Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 61-75.
Timm, Lenora (1978). Not mere tongue-in-cheek: The case
for a common gender pronoun in English. International
Journal of Women's Studies 1(6):555-565.
Wilson, La Visa Cam (1978). Teachers' inclusion of males
and females in generic nouns. Research in the Teaching of
English 12:155-161.
Wolfe, Susan J. (1989). The reconstruction of word
meanings: A review of the scholarship. In F. W. Frank &
P.A. Treichler, Language, Gender, and Professional Writing.
Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist
Usage. New York: Modern Language Association, 80-94.
X. Gender Bias in the Lexicon
August, Eugene R. (1990). Real men don't: Anti-male bias in
English. In P. Eschholz, A. Rosa & V. Clark, eds., Language
Awareness. New York: St. Martin's Press, 289-300.
Gershuny, H.Lee (1975). Public doublespeak--The
dictionary. College English 37:938-942.
_____(1977). Sexism in dictionaries and texts: Omissions and
commissions. In A.P. Nilsen et al., eds., Sexism and
Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of
English, 143-160.
Graham, Alma (1975). The making of a non-sexist
dictionary. In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and
Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House, 57-73.
Hampares, Katherine (1976). Sexism in Spanish
lexicography. Hispania 59:100-109.
Kahn, Lynda (1975). Sexism in everyday speech. Social
Work 20(1):65-67.
Ng, Sik Hung , et al. (1993). Polarized semantic change of
words associated with females and males. Journal of
Language and Social Psychology 12(1-2).
Nilsen, Alleen Pace (1977). Sexism as shown through the
English vocabulary. In A.P. Nilsen, et al., eds., Sexism and
Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of
English, 27-42.
______ (1990). Sexism in English: A 1990s update. In P.
Eschholz, A. Rosa & V. Clark, eds., Language Awareness.
New York: St. Martin's Press, 277-287.
Schulz, Muriel (1975). The semantic derogation of women.
In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex:
Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House, 64-73.
Strainchamps, Ethel (1972). Our sexist language, In V.
Gornick & B. K. Moren, eds., Women in Sexist Society. New
York: Mentor, 347-361.
Treichler, Paula A. (1989). From discourse to dictionary.
How sexist meanings are authorized. In F. W. Frank & P.A.
Treichler, Language, Gender, and Professional Writing.
Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist
Usage. New York: Modern Language Association, 51-79.
XI. References to the Sexes
Abd-el-Jawad, Hassan R.S. (1988/89). Language and
women's place with special reference to Arabic.
Unpublished ms. (Dept. of English, Yarmouk
Univ., Irbid, Jordan)
Allen, Iriving L. (1984). Male sex roles and epithets for
ethnic women in American slang.Sex Roles 11:43-50.
Atkinson, D. (1987). Names and titles: Maiden name
retention and the use of Ms. Journal of the Atlantic
Provinces Linguistic Association 9:56-83.
Connor, Jane, Fiona Byrne, Jodi Mindell, Donna Colan &
Elizabeth Nixon (1986). Use of the titles Ms., Miss, or Mrs.:
Does it make a difference? Sex Roles 14(9/10):545-549.
Dion, Kenneth L. (1987). What's in a title? The Ms.
stereotype, and images of women's titles of address.
Psychology of Women Quarterly 11:21-36.
Heilman, Madeline (1975). Miss, Mrs., Ms. or none of the
above? American Psychologist 30(4):516-518.
Hook, D. (1974). Sexism in English pronouns and forms of
address. General Linguistics 14(2):86-96.
Kramer, Cheris (1975). Sex-related differences in address
systems. Anthropological Linguistics 17(5):198-210.
Kupper, Susan J. (1990). Surnames for Women; a Decision-
Making Guide. Jefferson: McFarland & Co.
Lassiter, Mary (1983). Our Names, Our Selves. London:
Heinemann.Lawson, E.D. (1974). Women's first names: A
semantic differential analysis. Names 22(2): 52-58.
Lebell, Sharon (1988). Naming Ourselves, Naming Our
Children: Resolving the Last Name Dilemma. Freedom, CA:
The Crossing Press.
Nilson, Alleen Pace (1984). Greetings and salutations in a
new age. Language in Society 13: 245-247.
Penfield, Joyce (1987). Surnaming: The struggle for
personal identity. In J. Penfield, ed., Women and Language
in Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press,
117-129.
Rubin, Joan (1986). How does the way women are referred
to and described affect their participation in development
and democracy. In J. Fishman, et al., eds., The Fergusonia
impact. Vol. 2, Sociolinguistics and the sociology of
language. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 315-324.
Shepelak, Norma J., Darlene Ogden & Diane Tobin-Bennett
(1984). The influence of gender labels on the sex typing of
imaginary occupations. Sex Roles 11(11/12):983-996.
Slater, Anne Saxton & Saul Feinman (1985). Gender and
phonology of North American first names. Sex Roles
13(7/8):429-440.
Stannard, Una (1977). Mrs. Man. San Francisco: Germain
Books.
Wolfson, Nessa & Joan Manes (1980). Don't "Dear" me! In
S. McConnell-Ginet, Sally, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds.,
Women and Language in Literature and Society. New
York: Praeger, 79-92.
Yusuf, K. (1989). English imposed sexism in the Yoruba
language: The case of 'baby' and 'Aya'. Women and
Language 12:27-30.
XII. Developmental Aspects of Sex Differences in Language
Bellinger, D. & J.B. Gleason (1982). Sex differences in
parental directives to young children. Sex Roles 8:1123-
1139.
Berko-Gleason, Jean (1987). Sex differences in parent-child
interaction. In S. Philips, S. Steele, and C. Tanz, eds.,
Language, gender and sex in comparative perspective.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 189-199.
Blaubergs, Maija (1975). On 'The nurse was a doctor.' In R.
Ordoubadian and W. von Raffler-Engle,eds., Views on
Language. Murfreesboro, Tenn.: Inter-University
Publishing, 87-95.
Brownell, Winifred & Dennis Smith (1973). Communication
patterns, sex, and length of verbalization of speech of 4-
year-old children. Speech Monographs 40:159-167.
Cahill, Spencer (1986). Language practices and self-
definition: The case of gender identity acquisition.
Sociological Quarterly 27(3):295-311.
Camras, Linda (1984). Children's verbal and nonverbal
communication in a conflict situation. Ethology and
Sociobiology 5:257-268.
Cherry, Louise & Michael Lewis (1976). Mothers and two-
year-olds: A study of sex diffentiated aspects of verbal
interaction. Developmental Psychology 12(4):278-282.
_____ & _____ (1978). Differential socialization of girls. In
N. Waterson & C. Snow, eds., The Development of
Communication. New York: Wiley, 189-197.
Condry, John & Sandra Condry (1976). Sex differences: A
study of the eye of the beholder. Child Development
47:812-819.
Cook, Alicia Skinner, Janet J. Fritz, Barbara L. McCornack &
Cris Visperas (1985). Early gender differences in the
functional use of language. Sex Roles 12(9/10):909-915.
DiPietro, Janet Ann (1981). Rough and tumble play: A
function of gender. Developmental Psychology 17(1):50-
58.
Edelsky, Carole (1976). The acquisition of communicative
competence: Recognition of linguistic correlates of sex
roles. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 22(1):47-59.
_____ (1977). Acquisition of an aspect of communicative
competence: Learning what it is to talk like a lady. In S.
Ervin-Trip & C. Mitchel-Kernan, eds., Child Discourse. New
York: Academic Press, 225-243.
_____ (1978). Recognized sex-linked language. Language
Arts 53(7):746-752.
Edwards, John R. (1979). Social class differences and the
identification of sex in children's speech. Journal of Child
Language 6:121-127.
Eisenberg, Ann R. & Catherine Garvey (1981). Children's use
of verbal strategies in resolving conflicts. Discourse
Processes 4:149-170.
Engle, Marianne (1980). Family influences on the language
development of young children. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The
Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of
the Women's Studies International Quarterly
3(2/3):259-266.
Esposito, Anita (1979). Sex differences in children's
conversation. Language and Speech 22(3):213-220.
Fichtelius, Anna, Irene Johansson & Kerstin Nordin (1980).
Three investigations of sex-associated speech variation in
day school. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of
Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies
International Quarterly 3(2/3): 219-226.
Filmer, H.T. & Leslie Haswell (1977). Sex-role stereotyping
in English usage. Sex Roles 3(3): 257-263.
Fine, Gary Alan (1977). Social components of children's
gossip. Journal of Communication 27(1):181-185.
Fischer, John L. (1958). Social influences on the choice of a
linguistic variable. Word 14:45-56.
Flerx, Vicki C., Dorothy Fidler & Ronald Rogers (1976). Sex
role stereotypes: Developmental aspects and early
intervention. Child Development 47(4):998-1007.
Gleason, Jean Berko (1973). Code switching in children's
language. In T.E. Moore, ed., Cognitive Development and
the Acquisition of Language. New York: Academic Press,
159-167.
_____ (1987). Sex differences in parent-child interaction. In
S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender &
Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 189-199.
Golinkoff, R. & G. Ames (1979). A comparison of fathers' and
mothers' speech with their young children. Child
Development 50:28-32.
Goodwin, Marjorie Harness (1980). Directive-response
speech sequences in girls' and boys' task activities. S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York:
Praeger, 157-163.
_____ and Charles Goodwin (1987). Children's arguing. In
S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender &
Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 200-248.
_____ (1988). Cooperation and competition across girls' and
boys' task activities. In A. Todd & S. Fisher, eds., Gender
and Discourse: The Power of Talk. Norwood, NJ: Ablex,
55-94.
Greif, Esther Blank (1980). Sex differences in parent-child
conversations. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words
of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's
Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):253-258.
Haas, Adelaide (1979). The acquisition of genderlect. In J.
Orasanu, M.K. Slater & L. Loeb Alder, eds., Language, Sex,
and Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference? New
York Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:101-114.
Harris, L.J. (197). Sex differences in the growth and use of
language. In E. Donelson & J. Fullahorn, eds., Women: A
Psychological Perspective. New York, Wiley, 79-94.
Hyde, Janet S. (1984). Children's understanding of sexist
language. Developmental Psychology 20:697-706.
Klann-Delius, Gisela (1981). Sex and language acquisition: Is
there any influence. Journal of Pragmatics 5:1-25.
Koenigsknecht, Roy A. & Philip Friedman (1976). Syntax
development in boys and girls. Child Development
47(4):1109-1115.
Meditch, Andrea (1975). The development of sex-specific
speech patterns in young children. Anthropological
Linguistics 17(1):19-24.
Paludi, Michel A. & Dominic F. Gullo (1986). The effect of sex
labels on adults' knowledge of infant development. Sex
Roles 16(1/2):19-30.
Powell, Robert C. (1979). Sex differences and language
learning: A review of the evidence. Audio-Visual
Language Journal 17(1):19-24.
Robin, J., Z. Luria & F. Provenzano (1976). The eye of the
beholder: Parents' view of sex of new-borns. In A. Kaplan
& J. Bean, eds., Beyond Sex Role Stereotypes: Readings
Toward a Psychology of Androgyny. Boston: Little, Brown
& Co. [NOF-UCD]
Sachs, Jacqueline (1987). Preschool boys' and girls' language
use in pretend play. In S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz,
eds., Language, Gender & Sex in Comparative Perspective.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 178-188.
_____, Philip Lieberman, & Donna Erickson (1973).
Anatomical and cultural determinants of male and female
speech. In R.W. Shuy & R. Fasold, eds., Language Attitudes:
Current Trends and Prospects. Washington, D.C.:
Georgetown University Press, 74-83.
Schachter, F.F., E. Shore, R. Hodapp, S. Chalfin & C. Bundy
(1978). Do girls talk earlier? Mean length of utterance in
toddlers. Developmental Psychology 14:388-392.
Schieffelin, Bambi B. (1987). Do different worlds mean
different words? An example from Papua New Guinea. In
S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender &
Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 249-260.
Schneiderman, Eta (1978). Sex differences in the
development of children's ethnic and language attitudes.
Cahiers linguistiques d'Ottawa 6:1-21.
Sheldon, Amy (1990). 'Kings are royaler than queens':
Language and socialization. Young Children (January):4-9.
______ (1990). Pickle fights: Gendered talk in preschool
disputes. Discourse Processes 13(5): 5-31.
Smith, P.K. & L. Daglish (1977). Sex differences in parent
and infant behavior in home. Child Development 48:1250-
1254.
Steedman, C., Urwin, C. & V. Wolkerdine, eds. (1985).
Language, gender and childhood. Boston: Routledge.
Thorne, Barrie (1986). Children and gender: Constructions
of difference. In D. Rhode, ed., Theoretical Perspectives on
Sexual Difference. New Haven: CT: Yale University Press,
100-113.
Van Alphen, Ingrid (1987). Learning from your peers: The
acquisition of gender-specific speech styles. In D. Brouwer,
& D. de Haan, eds., Women's Language, Socialisation and
Self-Image. Dordrecht: Foris, 58-75.
Vigorito, J. et al. (1971). Speech perception in infants.
Science 171(1):303-306.
West, Candace & Don H. Zimmerman (1977). Women's place
in everyday talk: Reflections on parent-child interaction.
Social Problems 24(5):521-529.
Whyte, J. (1984). Observing sex stereotypes and interactions
in the school lab and workshop. Educational Review
36:75-86.
XIII. Sex Differences in Nonverbal Communication
Argyle, Michael (1973). The syntaxes of bodily
communication. International Journal of Psycholinguistics
2:71-92.
Austin, W.M. (1965). Some social aspects of paralanguage.
Canadian Journal of Linguistics 11:31-39.
Baxter, James C., Daniel Druckman & Richar M. Rozelle
(1982). Nonverbal communication: Survey, Theory, and
Research. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Birdwhistell, Ray L. (1970). Masculinity and femininity as
display. In R.L. Birdwhistell, Kinesics and Context: Essays
on Body Motion Communication. Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press, 39-46.
Blahna, Loretta (1975). A survey of the research on sex
differences in non-verbal communication. In B. Eakins, G.
Eakins & B. Lieb-Brilhart, eds., Womens (and Men's)
Communication. Washington, D.C.: Speech
Communication Association, 28-34.
Bradac, J.J., M. O'Donnell & C.H. Tardy (1984). Another stab
at a touchy subject: Affective meaning of touch. Women's
Studies in Communication 7:38-50.
Buchanan, Douglas R., M. Goldman & R. Juhnke (1977). Eye
contact, sex and the violation of personal space. The
Journal of Social Psychology 103:19-25.
Cooke, B.G. (1980). Nonverbal communication among Afro-
Americans: An initial clarification. In R.L. Jones, ed., Black
Psychology (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harper & Row.
Dierks-Stewart, Kathi (1980). Sex differences in nonverbal
communication: An alternative perspective. In Berryman,
Cynthia L. & Virginia A. Eman, eds., Communication,
Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual
Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 112-121.
Ellyson, S.L., J.F. Dovidio & R. Corson (1981). Visual behavior
differences in females as a function of self-perceived
expertise. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 5:164-171.
Feldstein, Stanley & Aron W. Siegman (1978). Nonverbal
Behavior and Communication.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Fischer, J.D. & D. Byrne (1975). Too close for comfort: Sex
differences in response to invasion of personal space.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32:15-21.
Frances, Susan J. (1979). Sex differences in nonverbal
behavior. Sex Roles 5:519-535.
Frieze, I.R. & S.J. Ramsey (1970). Nonverbal maintenance of
traditional sex roles. Journal of Social Issues 32(3):133-
141.
Fromme, D.K. & D.C. Beam (1974). Dominance and sex
differences in nonverbal responses to differential eye
contact. Journal of Research in Personality 8:76-87.
Halberstadt, amy G. (1983). Gender and nonverbal behavior:
Of relevance and rigor. Semiotica 45 (3/4):351-369.
Hall, Judith A. (1978). Gender effects in decoding nonverbal
cues. Psychological Bulletin 85: 845-857.
______ (1984). Nonverbal Sex Differences: Communication
Accuracy and Expressive Style. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Hanna, Judith Lynne (1988). Dance, Sex, and Gender. Signs
of Identity, Dominance, Defiance, and Desire. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Henley, Nancy M. (1975). Power, sex, and nonverbal
communication. In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language
and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.:
Newbury House, 184-202.
_____ (1977). Body Politics: Power, Sex and Nonverbal
Communication. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
_____ & Jo Freeman (1975). The sexual politics of
interpersonal behavior. In Jo Freeman, ed., Women: A
Feminist Perspective. Palo Alto: Mayfield, 391-401.
Kennedy, Carl & Carl Camden (1984). Interruptions and
nonverbal gender differences. Journal of Nonverbal
Behavior 8(2):91-108.
Klein, Zdenek (1984). Sitting postures in males and females.
Semiotica 48(1/2):119-131.
LaFrance, Marianne & Clara Mayo (1978). Moving Bodies:
Nonverbal Communication in Social Relationships.
Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
_____& _____(1979). A review of nonverbal behaviors of
women and men. The Western Journal of Speech
Communication 43:96-107.
_____& _____ (1980). The nonverbal display of
psychological androgyny. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology 38(1):36-49.
Leffler, Ann, Dair Gillespie & Joseph C. Conaty (1982). The
effects of status differentiation on nonverbal behavior.
Social Psychology Quarterly 45:153-161.
Major, B. (1981). Gender patterns in touching behavior. In
C. Mayo & N.M. Henley, eds., Gender and Nonverbal
Behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Mayo, Clara & Nancy Henley, eds. (1981). Gender and
Nonverbal Behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Mulac, Anthony, L. B. Studley, J.M. Wiemann & J.J. Bradac
(1987). Male/female gaze in same-sex and mixed-sex
dyads. Human communication Research 13(3):323-343.
Murray, Stephen O. & Lucile H. Covelli (1988). Women and
men speaking at the same time. Journal of Pragmatics 12.
Nguyen, Tuan, Richard Heslin & Michele L. Nguyen (1975).
The meaning of touch: Sex differences. Journal of
Communication 25(3):92-103.
Smith Althea (1983). Nonverbal communication among
black female dyads: an assessment of intimacy, gender
and race. Journal of Social Issues 39(3):55-67.
Vrugt, Anneke & Ada Kerkstra (1984). Sex differences in
nonverbal communication. Semiotica 50(1/2):1-41.
Weitz, Shirely (1976) Sex differences in nonverbal
communication. Sex Roles 2(2):175-184.
Wolfgang, Aaron (1979). Nonverbal behavior: Applications
and cultural implications. New York: Academic Press.
XIV. Sex Differences/Sexism in Literature
Borker, David & Olga K. Garnica (1980). Male and female
speech in dramatic dialogue: A stylistic analysis of
Chekovian character. Language and Style 13(4):3-28.
Burtturff, D. & E.L. Epstein, eds. (1978). Women's Language
and Style. Akron OH: L&S Books
Cooper, Pamela (1987). Sex-role stereotypes of stepparents
in children's literature. In L.P. Stewart & S. Ting-Toomey,
eds., Communication, Gender, and Sex Roles in Diverse
Interaction Contexts. Norwood, NJ: ABLEX, 61-82.
Costello, Bonnie (1980). The "feminine" language of
Marianne Moore. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N.
Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and
Society. New York: Praeger, 222-238.
Donovan, Josephine, ed. (1971). Feminist Literary Criticism:
Explorations in Theory. Kentucky: University Press of
Kentucky.
_____ (1980). The silence is broken. In S. McConnell-Ginet,
R, Borker & N. Furman, eds. , Women and Language in
Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 205-218.
Farrell, Thomas J. (1979). The female and male modes of
rhetoric. College English 40(8).
Fricke, Donna (1980). Phallic criticism: Some suggestions for
remedying the unfortunate state of the art of literary
criticism. In C. Berryman, & V. A. Eman, eds. ,
Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the
First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House,
41-50.
Gallop, Jane (1980). Snatches of conversation. In S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
274-283.
Gardiner, Judith Kegan (1981). On female identity and
writing by women. Critical Inquiry 8: 347-361.
Gershuny, H. Lee (1977). Sexism in the language of
literature. In Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Haig Bosmajian, H. Lee
Gershuny & Julia P. Stanley , Sexism and Language.
Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 107-
130.
Gilbert , Sandra & Susan Gubar (1987). The War of the
Words. Vol. 1 of No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman
Writer in the Twentieth Century. New Haven: Yale Univ.
Press.
Heilbrun, Carolyn G. (1981). Women, men, theories, and
literature. Profession 81:25-29.
Hiatt, Mary P. (1976). The sexology of style. Language and
Style 9(2):98-107.
_____ (1977). The Way Women Write. New York: Teachers
College Press.
_____ (1980). Women's prose styles: A study of
contemporary authors. Language and Style 13(4):36-45.
Kamuf, Pegge (1980). Writing like a woman (1980). In S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
284-299.
Kolodny, Annette (1973). The land-as-woman: Literary
convention and latent psychological content. Women's
Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 1(2):167-182.
_____ (1975). The Lay of the Land. Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press.
_____ (1980). Honing a habitable languagescape: Women's
images for the New World frontiers. In S. McConnell-
Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language
in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 188-204.
Kramarae, Cheris (1975). Excessive loquacity: Women's speech
as represented in American etiquette books. In B. Eakins,
G. Eakins & B. Lieb-Brilhart, eds., Women's (and Men's)
Communication. Washington, D.C.: Speech Communication
Association, 46-55.
Lakoff, Robin Tolmach (1979). Stylistic strategies within a
grammar of style. In Orasanu, Judith, Mariam K. Slater &
Leonore Loeb Alder, eds. (1979). Language, Sex, and
Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference? New York
Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:53-80.
Larsson, Lisbeth (1980). Women's reading. In C. Kramarae,
ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special
issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly
3(2/3):277-284.
Martin, Wendy (1972). Seduced and abandoned in the New
World: The image of woman in American fiction. In V.
Gornick & B.K. Moran, eds., Woman in Sexist Society. New
York: The New American Library, 329-346.
Miller, Nancy K. (1980). Women's autobiography in France:
For a dialectics of identification. In McConnell-Ginet, Sally,
Ruth Borker & Nelly Furman, eds., Women and Language
in Language and Society. New York: Praeger, 258-273.
Miller, Casey & Kate Swift (1980). The Handbook of
Nonsexist Writing for Writers, Editors, and Speakers. New
York: Lippincott & Crowell.
Millett, Kate (1969). Sexual Politics. New York:
Avon/Equinox.
_____ (1970) . Sexual politics (in literature). In Robin
Morgan, ed., Sisterhood is Powerful: An Anthology of
Writings from the Women's Liberation Movement. New
York: Vintage, 349-376.
Mills, Sara (1987). The male sentence. Language and
Communication 7(34):189-198.
Montefiore, Jan (1987). Feminism and Poetry: Language,
Experience, Identity in Women's Writing. New York:
Pandora.
Morgan, William (1979). Images of men and maleness: A
thematic approach to teaching women writers. College
English 40(8).
Pigott, Margaret B. (1979). Sexist roadblocks in inventing,
focusing and writing. College English 40(8).
Pringle, Mary Beth & Anne Stericker, eds. (1980) . Sex Roles
in Literature. New York: Longman.
Salem, J. Christine (1980). On naming the oppressor: What
Woolf avoids saying in A Room of One's Own. In C.
Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and
Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International
Quarterly 3(2/3):209-218.
Sandell, Karin (1980). The all-too-wonderful world of
children's literature: Forty years of award-winning
children's picture books. In C.L. Berryman& V.A. Eman,
eds. , Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of
the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House, 27-40.
Showalter, Elaine (1971). Women writers and the double
standard. In V. Gornick & B.K. Moran, eds., Woman in
Sexist Society. New York: The New American Library,
452-479.
Stahlecker, Jame E. (1980). Parental and literature
stereotype modeling. An investigation of their influences
on second grade children. In Berryman, Cynthia L. &
Virginia A. Eman, eds. , Communication, Language,
and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference.
Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 10-26.
Todd, Janet, ed. (1980). Gender and Literary Voice. New
York: Homes & Meier Publishers, Inc.
Treichler, Paula A. (1980). Verbal subversions in Dorothy
Parker: "Trapped like a trap in a trap." Language and
Style 13(4):46-61.
Walker, Nancy (1988). A Very Serious Thing: Women's
Humor and American Culture. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press.
Walters, Anna (1980). When women's reputations are in
male hands: Elizabeth Gaskell and the critics. Women's
Studies International Quarterly 3(4):405-414.
Warshay, Diana W. (1972). Sex differences in language style.
In C. Savilios-Rothschild, ed., Toward a Sociology of
Women. Lexington, MA: Xerox College Publishing, 3-9.
XV. Sexism in the Law and Courts
Blodgett, Nancy (1986). "I don't think that ladies should be
lawyers." ABA Journal (December 1): 48-53.
Bosmajian, Haig, (1977). Sexism in the language of
legislatures and courts. In Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Haig
Bosmajian, H. Lee Gershuny & Julia P. Stanley, Sexism and
Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of
English, 77-106.
Collins, Ronald K.L. (1977). Language, history and the legal
process: A profile of the "reasonable man." Rutgers-
Camden Law Journal 8(2). [Available in UCD Law School]
Cox, Gail Diane (1990). Reports track discrimination:
Fourteen volumes chronicle how women are treated in
court. The National Law Journal 12 , 26, November.
Driedger, E.A. (1976). Are statues written for men only?
McGill Law Journal 22 [A reply to Ritchie--see citation
below] [Available in UCD Law School]
Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs (1988). Social control: Law, public
policy, force, and the threat of force. Ch. 6 of C. F. Epstein,
Deceptive Distinctions. Sex, Gender, and the Social Order.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Hodgson, Beverly J. (1976). Sex texts and the First
Amendment. Journal of Law and Education 5(2).
MacDougall, Patricia (1972-73). Married women's common
law right to their own surnames. Women's Law Reporter
1(3):2-14.
MacKinnon, Catharine (1990). Legal perspectives on sexual
difference. In D. Rhode, ed., Theoretical Perspectives on
Sexual Difference. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 213-
225.
Nemeth, Charlan, Jeffrey Endicott & Joel Wachtler (1976).
From the '50's to the '70's: Women in jury deliberations.
Sociometry 39(4):293-304.
Nilsen, Alleen Pace (1977). Sexism in the language of
marriage. In Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Haig Bosmajian, H. Lee
Gershuny & Julia P. Stanley , Sexism and Language.
Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 131-
142.
Ritchie, Marguerite E. (1975). Alice through the statutes.
McGill Law Journal 21 (Winter). [Available in UCD Law
School]
Schafran, Lynn Hecht (1987). Documenting gender bias in
the courts: Thetask force approach. Judicature 70(5):280-
290.
West, Robin (1988). Jurisprudence and gender. The
University of Chicago Law Review 55:1-72.
Women in the Courts (1986). Report of the New Jersey
Supreme Court Task Force on Women in the Courts.
Fordham Urban Law Journal 15(1):11-198.
XVI. Sexism in Education & in Instructional Materials
Bertilson, H.S., Springer, D.K., & K.M. Fierke (1982).
Underrepresentation of female referents as pronouns,
examples, and pictures in introductory college textbooks.
Psychological Reports 51:923-931.
Brooks, Virginia R. (1982). Sex differences in student
dominance behaviour in female and male professors'
classrooms. Sex Roles 8:683-690.
Burr, E. , Dunn, S. & N. Farquhar (1972). Women and the
language of inequality. Social Education 36(2):841-845.
Carelli, Anne O'Brien, ed. (1988). Sex Equity in Education.
Springfield, ILL: Charles C. Thomas.
Craig, D. & M.K. Pitts (1990). The dynamics of dominance in
tutorial discussions. Linguistics 28: 125-138.
deBie, Marloes, L.W. (1987). Classroom interaction: Survival
of the fittest. In D. Brouwer & D. de Haan, eds., Women's
Language, Socialisation and Self-Image. Dordrecht: Foris,
76-88.
Elliott, John (1978). Sex role constraints in freedom of
discussion: A neglected reality of the classroom. The New
Era 55:147-155.
Gabriel, Susan L. & Isaiah Smithson , eds. (1990). Gender in
the Classroom: Power and Pedagogy. Champaign, IL:
University of Illinois Press.
Gershuny, H. Lee (1989). English handbooks 1979-85: Case
studies in sexist and nonsexist usage. In F.W. Frank & P.A.
Treichler, eds., Language, Gender, and Professional Writing:
Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist
Usage. New York: The Modern Language Association of
America, 95-104.
Giacomini, M., Roze-Koker, P. & F. Pepitone-Arreola-
Rockwell (1986). Gender bias in human anatomy textbook
illustrations. Psychology of Women Quarterly 10:413-420.
Gollnisk, Donna, Myra Sadler & Davis Sadler (1982). Beyond
the Dick and Jane syndrome: Confronting sex bias in
instructional materials. In Sex Equity Handbook for
Schools. New York: Longman.
Harrison, Linda (1975). Cro-magnon woman--in eclipse. The
Science Teacher 42(4):8-11.
Hartman, Pat L. & Elliot L. Judd (1978). Sexism and TESOL
materials. TESOL Quarterly 12(4):383-393.
Hoagland, Sarah Lucia (1980). Androcentric rhetoric in
sociobiology. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words
of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies
International Quarterly 3(2/3):285-293.
Holland, Dorothy C. & Margaret A. Eisenhart (1990).
Educated in Romance. Women, Achievement and College
Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jenkins, M.M. (1983). Removing Bias: Guidelines for
Student-Faculty Communcation. Annandale, VA: Speech
Communication Association.
Kiesler, Sara, Sproul, Lee S. & Jacquelynne S. Eccles (1985.
Pool halls, chips, and war games: women in the culture of
computing. Psychology of Women Quarterly 9:451-462.
Kinman, Judity R. & Darwin L. Henderson (1985). An analysis
of sexism in Newberry Medal Award books from 1977 to
1984. The Reading Teacher 38:885-889.
McDonald, Scott M. (1988). Sex bias in the representation of
male and female characters in children's picture books.
Journal of Genetic Psychology 150(4):389-401.
Neussel, Frank H. (1977). Resource guide: Sexism in
language texts. Language Sciences 46:22-23.
Nilsen, Alleen Pace (1977). Sexism in children's books and
elementary teaching materials. In A.P. Nilsen, H.
Bosmajian, H. L. Gershuny & J. P. Stanley, Sexism and
Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers
of English, 161-180.
Sadker, Myra & David Sadker (1985). Sexism in the
schoolroom of the '80s. Psychology Today (March):54-57.
Sandler, Bernice (1987). The classroom climate: A chilly one
for women. In Carol Lasser, ed., Educating Men and
Women Together: Coeducation in a Changing World.
Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Schmitz, Betty (1975). Sexism in French language textbooks.
In R.C. Lafayette, ed., The Cultural Revolution in Foreign
Language Teaching. Skokie, Ill.: National Textbook Co,
119-130.
Scully, Diana & Pauline Bart (1973)., A funny thing
happened on the way to the orifice: Women in gynecology
textbooks. In Joan Huber, ed., Changing Women in
Changing Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
283-288.
Stitt, B.A. (1988). Building Gender Fairness in Schools.
Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Steedman, Carolyn, Urwin, Cathy & Valerie Walkerdine, eds.
(1986). Language, Gender, and Childhood. Boston:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Swann, Joan (1992). Girls, Boys and Language. Cambridge,
MA: Basil Blackwell.
______ & David Graddol (1988). Gender inequalities in
classroom talk. English in Education 22(1):48-65.
Thorne, Barrie (1986). Girls and boys together...but mostly
apart: Gender arrangements in elementary schools. In W.
W. Hartup & Z. Rubin, eds., Relationships and Development
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 167-184.
Trepamer, Mary L. & Jane A. Romatowski (1985). Attributes
and roles assigned to characters in children's writing: sex
differences and sex-role perceptions. Sex Roles
13(5/6):263-272.
U'ren, Marjorie B. (1971). The image of women in textbooks.
In V. Gornick & B.K. Moran, eds. Woman in Sexist Society.
New York: New American Library, 318-328.
Wilkinson, Louise Cherry (1978). Teachers' inclusion of
males and females in generic nouns. Research in the
Teaching of English 12:155-161.
Worby, Diana Zacharia (1979). In search of a common
language: Women and educational texts. College English
4(1):101-105.
XVII. Use of Language & Imagery in the Mass Media
Barcus, F. Earle (1983). Images of Life on Children's
Television. New York: CBS Educational and Professional
Publishing.
Berryman, Cynthia L. (1975). The language of women as a
reflection of the image of women in a mass-circulation
magazine: An analysis of Ladies Home Journal fiction,
1900-1920. In B. Eakins, G. Eakins, and B. Lieb-
Brilhart, eds., Women's (and Men's) Communication.
Washington, D.C.: Speech Communication Association, 56-
62.
Bethel, Elizabeth R. (1975). Evaluation of traits of female
characters on day-time TV soap operas. In B. Eakins, G.
Eakins, and B. Lieb-Brilhart, eds., Women's (and Men's)
Communication. Washington, D.C.: Speech Communication
Association, 63-71.
_____ and Bettie Horne (1978). The language of male-female
humour in popular pulp. In Michael Paradis, ed., The
Fourth LACUS Forum 1977. Columbia, SC: Hornbeam
Press, 175-184.
Bobo, Jacqueline (1992?). Black feminism and media studies.
Special issue of Quarterly Review of Film and Video.
Butler, Matilda & William Paisley (1979). Women and the
Mass Media. Sourcebook for Research and Action. New
York: Human Sciences Press.
Chavez, Deborah (1985). Perpetuation of gender inequality:
A content analysis of comic strips. Sex Roles 13(1/2):93-
102.
Cooper, Virginia W. (1985). Women in popular music: A
quantitative analysis of feminine images over time. Sex
Roles 13(9/10):495-506.
Courtney, Alice & Thomas Whipple (1983). Sex Stereotyping
in Advertising. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Craig, Steve, ed. (1992). Men, Masculinity, and the Media.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Creedon, P.J., ed. (1989). Women in Mass Communication:
Challenging Gender Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications.
Daddario, Gina (1992). Swimming against the tide: Sports
Illustrated's imagery of female athletes in a swimsuit
world. Women's Studies in Communication 15(1):49-64.
Davidson, E.S., A. Yasuna & A. Tower (1979). The effects of
television cartoons on sex-role stereotyping in young girls.
Child Development 50:597-600.
Davis, Albert J. (1984). Sex-differentiated behaviors in
nonsexist picture books. Sex Roles 11(11/12):983-996.
Downs, Chris (1981). Sex-role stereotyping on prime-time
television. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 138:253-
258.
Eisenstock, B. (1984). Sex role differences in children's
identification with counterstereotypical televised
portrayals. Sex Roles 10:417-430.
Drew, Dan G. & Susan Miller (1977). Sex stereotyping and
reporting. Journalism Quarterly 54(1):142-146.
Fasold, Ralph (1987). Language policy and change: Sexist
language in the periodical news media. In P. Lowenberg,
ed., Language Spread and Language Planning. Washington,
D.C.: Georgetetown University Press.
______, Yamada, H., Robinson, D. & S. Barish (1990). The
language-planning effect of newspaper editorial policy:
Gender differences in The Washington Post. Language in
Society 19(4):521-539.
Fine, Marlene (1981). Soap opera conversations: The talk
that binds. Journal of Communication 31:97-107.
Friedman, Leslie J. (1977). Sex Role Stereotyping in the Mass
Media. New York: Garland.
Geis, F.L., V. Brown, J. Jennings & N. Porter (1984). TV
commercials as achievement scripts for women. Sex Roles
10(7-8):513-525.
Goffman (1979). Gender Advertisements. New York:
Harper Colophon.
Gagnard, A. (1989). A sociocultural close-up: Body image in
advertising. In P.J. Creedon, ed., Women in Mass
Communication: Challenging Gender Values. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications, 261-262.
Gunter, Barrie (1986). Television and sex role stereotyping.
London: J. Libbey & Co. Ltd.
Halbur, Bernice & Mary Vandagriff (1987). Societal
responses after death: A study of sex differences in
newspaper death notices. Sex Roles 17(7/8):421-436.
Lazier-Smith, L. (1989). A new 'genderation' of images to
women. In P.J. Creedon, ed., Women in Mass
Communication: Challenging Gender Values.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 247-260.
Messner, Michael, Duncan, Margaret C. & Kerry Jensen
(1993). Separating the men from the girls: The gendered
language of televised sports. Gender & Society 7(1):121-
137.
Mills, Barbara (1992). Resisting change: Unchanging
stereotypes in The New Yorker Cartoons. Unpublished ms.,
UCD.
Peevers, Barbara H. (1979). Androgyny on the TV screen?
An analysis of sex-role portrayal. Sex Roles 5(6):797-809.
Sanders, Marlene & Marcia Rock (1988). Waiting for Prime
Time: The Women of Television News. Champaign, IL:
University of Illinois Pres..
Sims, Barbara (1974). "She's got to be a saint, lord knows, I
ain't": Feminine masochism in American country music.
Journal of Country Music 5:24-30.
Sternglanz, Sarah & Lisa Serbin (1974). Sex role
stereotyping in children's television programs.
Developmental Psychology 10(5):710-715.
Toeplitz, Jerzy (1980). Women in the Media. Paris: United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO).
Trauth, Denise M. & John L. Huffman (1980). Stereotyping in
advertising: Applying a scale for sexism. In C.L. Berryman
and V.A. Eman, eds., Communication, Language, and Sex:
Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.:
Newbury House, 51-58.
Tuchman, Gaye (1989). Edging Women Out: Victorian
Novelists, Publishers, and Social Change. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
_____ (1979). Women's depiction by the mass media. Signs
4(3):528-542.
_____, Arlene Kaplan Daniels, & James Benet, eds. (1978).
Hearth and Home: Images of Women in the Mass Media.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Venkatesan, M. & Jean Losco (1975). Women in magazine
ads: 1959-71. Journal of Advertising Research 15:49-54.
Verna, Mary Ellen (1975). The female image in children's
TV commercials. Journal of Broadcasting (Summer):301-
309.
Wilkinson, Melvin (1976). Romantic love: The great
equalizer? Sexism in popular music. The Family
Coordinator 25:161-166.
Wohletter, Maralinda & Bruce Lammers (1978). An analysis
of roles in print advertisements over a 20-year span:
1958-1978. In J.C. Olsen, ed., Advances in Consumer
Research. Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research.
XVIII. Language and Feminism
Baym, Nina (1987). The madwoman and her languages.
Why I don't do feminist literary theory. In Shari Benstock,
ed., Feminist Issues in Literary Scholarship. Bloomington,
IN: Indiana University Press, 45-61.
Cameron, Deborah (1985). Language, Feminism and
Linguistics. London: Macmillan.
French, Marilyn (1976). Women in language. Soundings
59:251-279.
Furman, Nelly (1980). Textual feminism. In S. McConnell-
Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language
in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 45-54.
Gilbert, Sandra & Susan Gubar (1985). Sexual linguistics.
New Literary History 16:515-543.
Kramarae, Cheris (1980). Proprietors of language. In S.
McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and
Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger,
58-68.
Le Guin, Ursula K. (1989). Dancing at the Edge of the World.
Thoughts on Words, Women, Places. New York: Grove
Press.
McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1980). In S. McConnell-Ginet, R
Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in
Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 3-25.
Scheman, Naomi (1980), Anger and the politics of naming.
In S. McConnell-Ginet, R Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women
and Language in Literature and Society. New York:
Praeger, 174-187.
Valian, Virginia (1977). Linguistics and feminism. In F.
Ellison, J. English, & M. Vetterling, eds., Feminism and
Philosophy. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams & Co., 154-166.
XIX. Changing Sexist Language
Adell, J. & H.D. Klein (1976). A Guide to Nonsexist Children's
Books. Orlando, FL: Academy Press.
Bate, Barbara (1975). Generic man, invisible woman:
Language, thought, and social change. University of
Michigan Papers in Women's Studies 2(1):83-95.
_____ (1978). Nonsexist language use in transition. Journal
of Communication 28:139-149.
Blaubergs, Maija S. (1978). Changing the sexist language:
The theory behind the practice. Psychology of Women
Quarterly 2:244-261.
Blaubergs, Maija S. (1980). An analysis of the classic
arguments against changing sexist language. In C.
Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men."
Special issue of the Women's Studies International
Quarterly 3(2/3):135-248.
Capek, Mary Ellen S. (1987). A Woman's Thesaurus. An
Index of Language Used to Describe and Locate
Information by and about Women. New York:
Harper & Row.
Cofer, Charles N., Robert S. Daniels, Frances Y. Dunham and
Walter Heimer (1977). Guidelines for nonsexist language
in APA journals. American Psychologist 32:486-494.
Dumond, Val (1991). The Elements of Nonsexist Usage: A
Guide to Inclusive Spoken and Written English. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Press.
Ehrlich, Susan & Ruth King (1992). Gender-based language
reform and the social construction of meaning. Discourse &
Society 3(2):151-166.
Frank, Francine (1989). Language plannning, language
reform, and language change: A review of guidelines for
nonsexist usage. In F. W. Frank & P.A. Treichler,
Language, Gender, and Professional Writing. Theoretical
Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New
York: Modern Language Association, 105-133.
Frank, Francine & Frank Anshen (1983). Guidelines for non-
discriminatory language usage In F. Frank & F. Anshen,
Language and the Sexes. Albany: State University of New
York Press, 107-114.
_____ & _____ A selected list of guidelines for non-sexist
usage. In F. Frank & F. Anshen, Language and the Sexes.
Albany: State University of New York Press, 115-119.
Henley, Nancy M. (1987). This new species that seeks a new
language: On sexism in language and language change. In
J. Penfield, ed., Women and Language in Transition.
Albany: State University of New York Press, 3-27.
Kramarae, Cheris & Paula A. Treichler (1985). A Feminist
Dictionary. Boston: Pandora Press.
_____ & Mercilee M. Jenkins (1987). Women take back the
talk. In J. Penfield, ed., Woman and Language in
Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press,
137-156.
Maggio, Rosalie (1987). The Nonsexist Word Finder. A
Dictionary of Gender-Free Usage. Boston: Beacon Press.
Martyna, Wendy (1980). Beyond the he/man approach.
Signs: 5:482-493.
_____ (1983). Beyond the he/man approach: The case for
nonsexist language. In B. Thorne, C. Kramarae, & N.
Henley, eds., Language, Gender and Society. Rowley,
MA: Newbury House, 25-37.
McMinn, Mark, Troyer, Pamela, Hannum, Laurel, & James
Foster (1990). Teaching nonsexist language to college
students. The Journal of Experimental Education
59(2):153-161.
Miller, Casey & Kate Swift (1988). Handbook of Nonsexist
Writing: For Writers, Editors & Speakers. New York:
Harper-Collins.
Newman, J. (1987). Girls are People Too: A Bibliography of
Non-traditional Female Roles in Children's Books.
Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.
Sorrels, Bobbye (1983). The Nonsexist Communicator;
Solving theProblems of Gender and Awkwardness in
Modern English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Withers, Barbara (1987). Resources for liberating the
curriculum. In J. Penfield, ed., Women and Language in
Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press,
65-114.
Back to the Language and Gender page.
John Lawler