RULERS OF BYZANTIUM (RŌMANIA): HISTORICAL NOTE

The origins of the Eastern Roman Empire are difficult to define. Geographical, military, and cultural considerations contributed to a continual bi-polarity of the Roman world. The idea of dividing responsibility over the Empire between eastern and western emperors dates at least as far back as the death of Septimius Severus in 211. An actual division of responsibility occurred when Valerianus left the West in the care of his son Gallienus in the late 250s, and again in the early 280s, when Carus left his son Carinus in charge of the West and made a second son, Numerianus, co-ruler in the East. This division was perpetuated by Diocletianus’ appointment of Maximianus as fellow Augustus in the West in 286 and by the Tetrarchy set up in 293. Constantinus I (Constantine the Great) gradually eliminated his Tetrarchic rivals and became sole senior emperor (Augustus) in 324. His conversion to Christianity and his foundation of Constantinople (Kōnstantinoupolis) in 324 (inaugurated 330) make his reign a convenient place to start a list of Byzantine emperors, for whom he remained a model. After Constantinus I died, authority over the empire continued to divide, fairly consistently, between East and West. The division was perpetuated after the death of Theodosius I in 395, but it is important to point out that technically the empire was considered undivided and ruled simultaneously by two or more emperors. At times of interregnum in the West, the eastern emperor was considered to be in charge. With the disappearance of emperors in the West in 476 (deposition of Romulus) or 480 (death of Nepos), this problem became irrelevant.

Eastern Roman emperors were called simply emperors (Augusti or basileis), as were co-rulers of equal rank. The title Caesar (or kaisar) had declined in importance under the Tetrarchy, and declined further still under Alexios I Komnēnos, falling behind new titles like despotēs and sebastokratōr in the hierarchy. Consequently, after the early 7^th century, Caesars will no longer be listed as co-rulers. After recognizing Charles I as Emperor of the Franks in 812, the Byzantine rulers started to underline their legitimacy by regularly calling themselves Emperors of the Romans (basileis tōn Rōmaiōn). After the Byzantine government recognized Simeon I as Emperor of the Bulgarians in 913, the imperial title was further augmented as Emperors and Autocrats of the Romans (basileis kai autokratōres tōn Rōmaiōn). Byzantium (Byzantion) being used mostly in archaizing literary works as a synonym for Constantinople, the Byzantines considered themselves Romans (Rōmaioi) and their state Roman, though they do not seem to have distinguished the cultural term ‘Roman’ from ‘Greek.’ Greek had long become one of the languages used on official documents, and Latin usages survived fairly late, but the reign of Hērakleios has been taken as the arbitrary point to switch from Latin to Greek forms of names in the list.

Technically, like their Roman predecessors, Byzantine emperors were supposed to be elected by the people, acclaimed by the army, and crowned by the patriarch. In reality, since well before the time of Constantinus I, hereditary succession was becoming the norm. The destruction of the Tetrarchy by Constantinus I confirmed this trend, and imperial families became increasingly exclusive of outsiders. Historical accident, however, prevented imperial families from retaining power for very long periods of time. The Macedonian dynasty was the first to maintain itself on the throne for more than a century. The Komnēnoi sought to reinforce their position by intermarrying widely among noble houses, and as a result all Byzantine emperors after Isaakios I Komnēnos are related to each other. The overthrow of Andronikos I Komnēnos in 1185 led to the establishment of the Angeloi on the throne, but they were direct descendants of Alexios I Komnēnos. The Angeloi were overthrown by the commotion surrounding the 4^th Crusade in 1204 and the crusaders managed to seize Constantinople and establish their own imperial regime there (1204–1261). Byzantine splinter states maintained their independence in Epirus, Nikaia, and Trebizond, but it was Nikaia which, under the leadership of Iōannēs III Doukas Batatzēs, came into a position to reclaim the capital. In 1261 Mikhaēl VIII Palaiologos found himself the master of Constantinople thanks to the enterprise of his general Alexios Stratēgopoulos, and proceeded to depose his ward Iōannēs IV Doukas Laskaris. The Palaiologan dynasty continued to reign over the Byzantine Empire until the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and a little longer in Greece. The Epirote state was gradually subdued by successive Nikaian and Byzantine emperors, while Trebizond continued its precarious and marginalized existence into the 1460s. A succession of civil wars in the 14^th century undermined Byzantine resilience towards its neighbors and ultimately Byzantium fell victim to its erstwhile mercenaries, the Ottoman Turks.

RULERS OF BYZANTIUM (RŌMANIA): LIST

	Emperors of the Romans
307–337	CONSTANTINUS I the Great	Son of Constantius I; Caesar 306
	CRISPUS	Son of Constantinus I; Caesar 317–326; executed by father
337–340	CONSTANTINUS II	Son of Constantinus I; Caesar 317; killed against Constans
337–361	CONSTANTIUS II	Son of Constantinus I; Caesar 324
337–350	CONSTANS	Son of Constantinus I; Caesar 333
	DALMATIUS	Son of Dalmatius son of Constantius I; Caesar 335–337; murdered
	CONSTANTIUS GALLUS	Son of Iulius Constantius son of Constantius I; Caesar 351–354; executed
361–363	IULIANUS	Brother of Constantius Gallus; Caesar 355; killed against Persia
363–364	IOVIANUS	Son of Varronianus
364–364	VALENTINIANUS I	Son of Gratianus; resigned East to brother Valens, died 375
364–378	VALENS	Brother of Valentinianus I; killed against the Visigoths
(365–366)	PROCOPIUS	Relative of Iulianus; usurper in Constantinople; captured and executed by Valens
378–379	GRATIANUS	Son of Valentinianus I; co-ruler with father 367, resigned East to Theodosius I; murdered 383
379–395	THEODOSIUS I the Great	Son of Theodosius
395–408	ARCADIUS	Son of Theodosius I; co-ruler 383
408–450	THEODOSIUS II the Younger	Son of Arcadius; co-ruler 402; died of a fall off his horse
450–457	MARCIANUS	Husband of Pulcheria daughter of Arcadius
457–474	LEO I the Butcher	Officer of the general Aspar
474–474	LEO II the Little	Son of Zeno by Ariadne daughter of Leo I; Caesar and co-ruler 473
474–491	ZENO	Tarasius, son of Codissa; husband of Ariadne daughter of Leo I; in exile 475–476
(475–476)	BASILISCUS	Brother of Verina widow of Leo I; usurper in Constantinople; deposed and starved to death
	MARCUS	Son of Basiliscus, Caesar 475–476; deposed and starved to death
	BASILISCUS	Son of Armatus; Caesar 476–477
(479–479)	MARCIANUS	Son of Anthemius and husband of Leontia daughter of Leo I; rebel in Constantinople, defeated
(484–488)	LEONTIUS	Patrician; crowned by Verina at Tarsus, captured at Antioch and executed
491–518	ANASTASIUS I Dicorus	Decurion of the Silentiarii; married Ariadne widow of Zeno
(513–515)	VITALIANUS	Magister Militum of Thrace; submitted to Anastasius I, murdered 520
518–527	IUSTINUS I	Commander of the Excubitores
527–565	IUSTINIANUS I	Son of Sabbatius by Vigilantia sister of Iustinus I
(532–532)	HYPATIUS	Son of Secundinus by Caesaria sister of Anastasius I; proclaimed during Nika riot, executed
565–578	IUSTINUS II	Son of Dulcetius by Vigilantia sister of Iustinianus I
578–582	TIBERIUS CONSTANTINUS	Commander of the Excubitores; Caesar 572, co-ruler 578
582–602	MAURICIUS TIBERIUS	Son of Paulus; husband of Constantina daughter of Tiberius Constantinus; Caesar and co-ruler 582; deposed and executed by Phocas
	THEODOSIUS	Son of Mauricius Tiberius; co-ruler 590–602; murdered (?)
602–610	PHOCAS	Centurion; deposed and executed by Hērakleios
610–641	HĒRAKLEIOS	Son of Heraclius exarch of Arfica
641–641	HĒRAKLEIOS KŌNSTANTINOS	Son of Hērakleios; co-ruler 613
641–642	KŌNSTANTINOS HĒRAKLEIOS	Son of Hērakleios; co-ruler 638 (called Hēraklōnas); deposed and mutilated
	TIBERIOS DAUID	Son of Hērakleios; Caesar 641–642; deposed and mutilated
642–668	KŌNSTANTINOS III the Bearded	Hērakleios, son of Hērakleios Kōnstantinos; co-ruler 641 (called Kōnstas); murdered
(668–669)	MIZIZIOS	Rebel general in Sicily; captured and executed
668–685	KŌNSTANTINOS IV	Son of Kōnstantinos III; co-ruler 654
	HĒRAKLEIOS	Son of Kōnstantinos III; co-ruler 659–681; deposed and mutilated
	TIBERIOS	Son of Kōnstantinos III; co-ruler 659–681; deposed and mutilated
685–695	IOUSTINIANOS II the Slitnosed	Son of Kōnstantinos IV; co-ruler 681; deposed and mutilated
695–698	LEONTIOS	Leōn, general of the Helladikoi; deposed and mutilated; executed 705
698–705	TIBERIOS II	Apsimaros, admiral of the Kybiraiotai; deposed and executed 705
705–711	IOUSTINIANOS II the Slitnosed	Restored; deposed and executed 711
	TIBERIOS	Son of Ioustinianos II; co-ruler 705–711; murdered
711–713	PHILIPPIKOS	Bardanēs, son of Nikēphoros; deposed and blinded
713–715	ANASTASIOS II	Artemios; imperial secretary; deposed, executed after revolt in 718
715–717	THEODOSIOS III	Son of Tiberios II (?); deposed by Leōn III
717–741	LEŌN III the Syrian	Konōn, general of the Anatolics
(727–727)	KOSMAS	Rebel general of the Helladikoi; captured and executed
741–775	KŌNSTANTINOS V Kopronymos	Son of Leōn III; co-ruler 720; in exile 741–743
(741–743)	ARTAUASDOS	Husband of Anna daughter of Leōn III; usurper in Constantinople; deposed and blinded
	NIKĒPHOROS	Son of Artauasdos co-ruler 742–743; deposed and blinded
775–780	LEŌN IV the Khazar	Son of Kōnstantinos V; co-ruler 750
780–797	KŌNSTANTINOS VI	Son of Leōn IV; co-ruler 776; deposed and blinded by mother Eirēnē, died 797
(792; 797)	NIKĒPHOROS	Son of Kōnstantinos V; blinded and exiled by Eirēnē, died 812/
797–802	EIRĒNĒ	Widow of Leōn IV and mother of Kōnstantinos VI; deposed, died 803
802–811	NIKĒPHOROS I the Logothete	Finance minister of Eirēnē; killed against Bulgaria
(803–803)	BARDANĒS the Turk	General of the Anatolics; rebelled; submitted to Nikēphoros I
(808–808)	ARSABĒR	Patrician; captured by Nikēphoros I
811–811	STAURAKIOS	Son of Nikēphoros I; co-ruler 803; mortally against Bulgaria, abdicated, died 812
811–813	MIKHAĒL I Rangabē	Son of Theophylaktos; husband of Prokopia daughter of Nikēphoros I; abdicated, died 844
	THEOPHYLAKTOS	Son of Mikhaēl I; co-ruler 812–813; abdicated
813–820	LEŌN V the Armenian	Son of Bardas; husband of Theodosia daughter of Arsabēr; murdered
	KŌNSTANTINOS	Symbatios, son of Leōn V; co-ruler 814–820; deposed and mutilated
820–829	MIKHAĒL II the Amorian	General; husband of Thekla daughter of Bardanēs the Turk
(820–823)	THŌMAS the Slav	Rebel general in Anatolia; captured and executed
829–842	THEOPHILOS	Son of Mikhaēl II; co-ruler 821
	KŌNSTANTINOS	Son of Theophilos; co-ruler 833–835
842–867	MIKHAĒL III the Drunkard	Son of Theophilos; co-ruler 840; murdered by Basileios I
867–886	BASILEIOS I the Macedonian	Co-ruler 866; killed in hunting accident
	KŌNSTANTINOS	Symbatios, son of Basileios I; co-ruler 869–879
886–912	LEŌN VI the Wise	Son of Mikhaēl III by Eudokia wife of Basileios I; co-ruler 870
912–913	ALEXANDROS	Son of Basileios I; co-ruler 879
913–959	KŌNSTANTINOS VII Porphyrogenitus	Son of Leōn VI; co-ruler 908 and 920–945; married Helenē daughter of Rōmanos I
920–944	RŌMANOS I Lakapēnos	Son of Theophylaktos; co-ruler 919; deposed by sons, died 948
	KHRISTOPHOROS	Son of Rōmanos I; co-ruler 921–931 (senior co-ruler from 927)
(944–945)	STEPHANOS	Son of Rōmanos I; co-ruler 924–945; deposed, died 967
(944–945)	KŌNSTANTINOS	Son of Rōmanos I; co-ruler 924–925; deposed, killed 946
959–963	RŌMANOS II	Son of Kōnstantinos VII; co-ruler 945
963–1025	BASILEIOS II the Bulgar-Slayer	Son of Rōmanos II; co-ruler 960 and 963–976
963–969	NIKĒPHOROS II Phōkas	Son of Bardas Phōkas; married Theophanō widow of Rōmanos II; murdered by Iōannēs I
969–976	IŌANNĒS I Tzimiskēs	Son of Theophilos Kourkouas by sister of Nikēphoros II; married Theodōra daughter of Kōnstantinos VII
(971; 987–989)	BARDAS Phōkas	Son of Leōn Phōkas brother of Nikēphoros II; rebelled 971 and 987, killed in battle
(976–979; 987)	BARDAS Sklēros	Brother of Maria wife of Iōannēs I; rebelled 976, fled to Arabs 979, captured 987, died 991
1025–1028	KŌNSTANTINOS VIII	Son of Rōmanos II; co-ruler 962
1028–1041	ZŌĒ	Daughter of Kōnstantinos VIII; deposed by Mikhaēl V
1028–1034	RŌMANOS III Argyropoulos	Prefect of Constantinople; husband of Zōē; drowned in his pool
1034–1041	MIKHAĒL IV the Paphlagonian	Married Zōē
1041–1042	MIKHAĒL V the Caulker	Son of Stephanos by Maria sister of Mikhaēl IV; deposed and blinded
1042–1050	ZŌĒ	Restored
1042–1055	KŌNSTANTINOS IX Monomakhos	Son of Theodosios Monomakhos; married Zōē
(1045–1045)	GEŌRGIOS Maniakēs	Rebel general in Italy; killed against Kōnstantinos IX
(1047–1047)	LEŌN Tornikios	Rebel general in Thrace; captured and blinded
1055–1056	THEODŌRA	Daughter of Kōnstantinos VIII; co-ruler 1042
1056–1057	MIKHAĒL VI Bringas the General	Nominated successor by Theodōra; abdicated
1057–1059	ISAAKIOS I Komnēnos	Son of Manouēl Komnēnos; rebel in Anatolia since 1057; abdicated, died 1062
1059–1067	KŌNSTANTINOS X Doukas	Son of Andronikos Doukas
1067–1078	MIKHAĒL VII Doukas Parapinakēs	Son of Kōnstantinos X; co-ruler c1060 and 1068–1071; deposed, died c1090
1068–1071	RŌMANOS IV Diogenēs	Son of Kōnstantinos Diogenēs; married Eudoxia widow of Kōnstantinos X; captured by the Turks at Mantzikert; arrested and blinded by stepson Mikhaēl VII, died 1072
	KŌNSTANTIOS Doukas	Son of Kōnstantinos X; co-ruler 1067–1078; killed in battle 1081
	ANDRONIKOS Doukas	Son of Kōnstantinos X; co-ruler 1068–?
	KŌNSTANTINOS Doukas	Son of Mikhaēl VII; co-ruler c1074–1078 and 1081–1090; died c1095
(1077–1078)	NIKĒPHOROS Bryennios	Rebel governor of Durazzo; defeated by Alexios Komnēnos
1078–1081	NIKĒPHOROS III Botaneiatēs	Son of Mikhaēl Botaneiatēs; rebel general in Anatolia since 1077; deposed, died 1081
(1078–1079)	NIKĒPHOROS Basilakēs	Rebel governor of Durazzo
(1080–1081)	NIKĒPHOROS Melissēnos	Rebel general in Anatolia; subdued by Alexios Komnēnos
1081–1118	ALEXIOS I Komnēnos	Son of Iōannēs Komnēnos brother of Isaakios I
1118–1143	IŌANNĒS II Komnēnos	Son of Alexios I; co-ruler 1092; died of infected wound
	ALEXIOS Komnēnos	Son of Iōannēs II; co-ruler 1123–1142
1143–1180	MANOUĒL I Komnēnos	Son of Iōannēs II
1180–1183	ALEXIOS II Komnēnos	Son of Manouēl I; co-ruler 1172; murdered by Andronikos I
1183–1185	ANDRONIKOS I Komnēnos	Son of Isaakios Komnēnos son of Alexios I; co-ruler 1182; murdered
(1184–1191)	ISAAKIOS Komnēnos	Grandson of Isaakios son of Iōannēs II; rebel in Cyprus, deposed by Richard I, poisoned 1195
1185–1195	ISAAKIOS II Angelos	Son of Andronikos Angelos son of Kōnstantinos by Theodōra daughter of Alexios I; deposed and blinded by brother Alexios III
1195–1203	ALEXIOS III Angelos	Brother of Isaakios II; fled to Thrace, died 1210/
(1200–1200)	IŌANNĒS Komnēnos the Fat	Son of Alexios Axoukhēs by Maria, daughter of Alexios son of Iōannēs II; executed
1203–1204	ISAAKIOS II Angelos	Restored
1203–1204	ALEXIOS IV Angelos	Son of Isaakios II; deposed and murdered
(1204–1204)	NIKOLAOS Kanabos	Rebel in Constantinople; subdued by Alexios V
1204–1205	ALEXIOS V Doukas Mourtzouphlos	Husband of Eudokia daughter of Alexios III; blinded by father-in-law, executed by Latins
1205–1222	THEODŌROS I Laskaris	Son of Manouēl Laskaris; husband of Anna daughter of Alexios III; crowned 1208
1222–1254	IŌANNĒS III Doukas Batatzēs	Son of Basileios Batatzēs; husband of Eirēnē daughter of Theodōros I
1254–1258	THEODŌROS II Doukas Laskaris	Son of Iōannēs III; co-ruler c1241
1258–1261	IŌANNĒS IV Doukas Laskaris	Son of Theodōros II; deposed and blinded, died c1305
1261–1282	MIKHAĒL VIII Palaiologos	Son of Andronikos Palaiologos by Theodōra daughter of Alexios Palaiologos by Eirēnē daughter of Alexios III; co-ruler 1259
1282–1328	ANDRONIKOS II Palaiologos	Son of Mikhaēl VIII; co-ruler 1261 (crowned 1272); deposed by grandson Andronikos III, died 1332
	MIKHAĒL IX Palaiologos	Son of Andronikos II; co-ruler 1281 (crowned 1294)–1320
1328–1341	ANDRONIKOS III Palaiologos	Son of Mikhaēl IX; co-ruler 1308/13
1341–1376	IŌANNĒS V Palaiologos	Son of Andronikos III; married Helenē daughter of Iōannēs VI; deposed by son Andronikos IV
1347–1354	IŌANNĒS VI Kantakouzēnos	Rebel emperor in Thrace 1341–1347; abdicated, died 1383
(1354–1357)	MATTHAIOS Asan Kantakouzēnos	Son of Iōannēs VI; co-ruler 1353; captured by Serbs, abdicated, died 1383
1376–1379	ANDRONIKOS IV Palaiologos	Son of Iōannēs V; co-ruler 1366–1373 and 1381–1385 Selymbria; usurped father; deposed
1379–1390	IŌANNĒS V Palaiologos	Restored; deposed by grandson Iōannēs VII
1390–1390	IŌANNĒS VII Palaiologos	Son of Andronikos IV; co-ruler 1376–1379, 1385–1403 Selymbria, 1403–1408 Thessalonica; usurped grandfather; deposed
1390–1391	IŌANNĒS V Palaiologos	Restored
1391–1425	MANOUĒL II Palaiologos	Son of Iōannēs V; co-ruler 1373–1376, 1379–1381, 1382–1387 Thessalonica, 1385
	ANDRONIKOS V Palaiologos	Son of Iōannēs VII; co-ruler 1403–1407 with father at Thessalonica
1425–1448	IŌANNĒS VIII Palaiologos	Son of Manouēl II; co-ruler 1408 (crowned 1421)
1448–1453	KŌNSTANTINOS XI Dragasēs	Son of Manouēl II; killed against the Ottomans