What is fascinating for me about this tape is the way in which the representations of diversity in the United States change over the course of the 20th century. Examples 1, 3, 4, 5, and 7 are written by outsiders to the traditions they represent. It remains open to interpretation whether these works demonstrate empathy with other peoples or if they simply represent an institutionalized racism so endemic as to be nearly invisible to their authors. Examples 2, 6, 8, and 9 are written and performed by artists who participate in the identities they create. While exceptions such as 2 and 7 contradict any notion of an historical trend, generally speaking, minorities in the United States increasingly have forged opportunities to add their own voices to music in "American" culture. Nevertheless, it is rare for these artists to achieve popular success and financial reward. As you listen to the nine examples on this tape ask yourself how this music comments upon the diversity of culture in the United States. Do minority voices get heard and, if they do, are they edited for mass consumption? Is American society truly diverse or is the process of Americanization still at work? Is America still a "melting pot" or does the country now respect and support cultural difference?

#1 "Legend" 7:00

Mvt. 1 from the Second ("Indian") Suite for Orchestra, op. 48, 1891&emdash;5

Edward MacDowell (New York, 1860&emdash;1908)

Performed by the Bohuslav Martinu Philharmonic;

Charles A. Johnson, conductor

Albany Records TROY 224 ©1997

Trained at the Paris Conservatoire (France) and the Frankfurt Conservatory (Germany), Edward MacDowell was the first composer born in the United States to be hailed as an artistic genius by Europeans. Following the advice of the Czechlaslovakian composer Antonin Dvorak, MacDowell incorporated Native American melodies and imagery into his compositions to tap into a vein of unadulterated "American" nationalism. MacDowell found the Native American melodies used in his second suite in a German dissertation written by the American anthropologist Theodore Baker, 1885? To my knowledge, the composer never had any personal contact with the people he claimed to represent. Do you think that the imagery conveyed by this instrumental piece emphasizes a primitive savagery or a rich cultural tradition? In any event, it's a problem to represent as diverse a group of nations as Native Americans by using short melodic fragments. In my opinion, it perpetuates stereotypes of primitivism, naturalism, and savagery. In the Second ("Indian") Suite a racist composition? For me anyway, it simply reflects that tacit ideological understandings of its time and I don't think that MacDowell intended this composition as an act of violence against the Indian nations. The Second Suite is certainly an "American" composition, but more because of the attitudes it participates in than for its use of "native" musical material.

#2 "That Mesmerizing Mendelssohn Tune" 1909, 2:32

Irving Berlin, (1888 (Russia) &emdash; 1989 (USA))

Performed by Joan Morris and Bill Bolcom

(both U of M Faculty Members)

Blue Skies Elektra Nonesuch 79120 ©1985

Born in Russia and originally named "Israel Baline," Irving Berlin emigrated to the States in 1893 with his father who was a Jewish cantor or religious singer. He wrote nearly 1,000 songs for Broadway shows, musical reviews, and films. His first big hit was "Alexander's Ragtime Band" in 1911. Facing descrimination against jews, Berlin still managed to portray himself as American through patriotic tunes and musical revues such as "Yip, Yip, Yaphank (1918)" and "This is the Army (1942). "God Bless America" is perhaps his best-known work. It's probably no coincidence that Berlin chose Felix Mendelssohn (1809&emdash;47) (another Jewish composer and the target of Richard Wagner's anti-semitic journalism) as a nearly autobiographical symbol of a great composer writing mesmerizing popular music. "That Mesmerizing Mendelssohn Tune" was one of the first songs for which Berlin wrote both words and music. The pianist and songwriter Ben Harney had syncopated Mendelssohn's "Spring Song" in his act at Tony Pastor's in the 1890s, setting the stage for Berlin's musical rendering. The original sheet music bears the subtitle "Mendelssohn Rag," and thus demonstrates one of the many ways black musical traditions were folded into American popular song.

#3 "Mambo Italiano" 1:21, 1954

by B. Merrill

Performed by Rosemary Clooney (1928 in Kentucky)

16 Most Requested Songs Columbia CK 44403 ©1989

Singing in a style known as "belting" that was derived from rhythm and blues, Clooney became nationally famous and is still releasing songs today. While she has numerous dedicated fans, the general public has always viewed her as a singer of ethnic novelty songs. In 1951 the sexually charged single "Come on-a my house" was her first hit single. She has been a symbol of Italian-American identity throughout her career, however, she has been forced frequently to portray Italianate charicatures as opposed to her own personal views. This song is not only an example of the popular currency of Italian cliches (any word ending in -o, -a, -I, or -e qualified at this time), but also of the way the exotic was blended into a single monolithic "other." The mambo is a Cuban dance, not an Italian one, and is related to the rumba and the cha-cha. The exotic was fashionable and quickly mutated from one fad to another. Singers whose commercial success depended on novelty songs were effectively actors, portraying a variety of peoples and places.

#4 "El niño busca su voz" 4:27

from Ancient Voices of Children, 1970

George Crumb (b. 1929 in Charleston West Virginia)

The Contemporary Chamber Ensemble; Arthur Weisberg, conductor

Elektra Nonsuch 79149 ©1971

Crumb received his doctorate in composition in 1959 from the University of Michigan while studying with Ross Lee Finney. He has been a professor at the University of Pennsylvania since 1965, and he won the Pulitzer prize in 1968. Ancient Voices of Children is the fifth composition by George Crumb based upon the poetry of the Spanish-language poet Frederico García Lorca. Commissioned by the Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge Foundation, Ancient Voices is typical of Crumb's remarkable interest in timbre (sound coloring). The opening vocal solo in this excerpt, for example, is sung directly into the strings of the piano. Allowed to vibrate sympatherically, the strings of the piano add an otherworldly sound to the singer's voice. This "other" world becomes the world of Lorca's poetry. Crumb's setting is sympathetic and places this Spanish-language poetry into the sphere of high classical art music. Yet the sounds of the exotic are still deployed. Lorca still speaks in translation.

#5 "America" 4:50

From of West Side Story, 1957

Leonard Bernstein (1918 in Lawrence, Mass. &emdash; 1990 in New York)

Bernstein on Broadway Deutsche Grammaphon 447 898 ©1993

Leonard Bernstein was one of the great popularizers of music in America. He "Young People's Concerts" were televised and influenced a generation of music educators. His musical style is synthetic and blends an extraordinary number of influences and styles into a new amalgamation. He composed symphonic works (Kaddish Symphony, 1963); chamber music; ballets (Fancy Free, 1944); musicals (On the Town, 1944; Candide, 1956; West Side Story, 1957); and choral music (Chichester Psalms, 1965). His Mass (1971), "a theater piece for singers, dancers, and players," was performed at the opening of the John F. Kennedy Cultural Center, Washington, D.C. and created a huge controversy as it mixed religious references from a variety of traditions with Rock 'n' Roll and other popular genres. From 1958 to 1969 he was musical director of the New York Philharmonic. "America" is from a remake and update of the Romeo and Juliet story set in the slums of New York City and pitting blacks against hispanics. This song is sung by a group of Latina women including Maria (Juliet) and creates a particular image of its title nation. The song walks a fine line between narrative and racism. I'll let you make the call...

#6 "Say it Loud! I'm Brown and I'm Proud" 3:16

Performed by El Vez

Written by El Vez and James Brown

G.I. Ay, Ay! Blues Big Pop 0910 ©1996

From the Los Angeles area, El Vez has made a remarkable political career as an Elvis Presley "imitator." Rather than translating Elvis to the Mexican-American community, El Vez uses the image, lyrics, and music of Elvis and other popular stars to communicate the messages of Mexican-Americans to the dominant culture. In doing so, El Vez serves as a lightening rod of Latino identity broadly conceived. His story is a wonderful example of the shift in the musical spheres of U.S. music. In the 1920s, black artists grafted their cultural language onto classical music to aspire to equality. Today, the new elite in music is the popular sphere and El Vez demonstrates the strength and humanity of his community in popular song. Building upon the accomplishments of black singers in the civil rights movements, such as James Brown who is covered herre, El Vez argues for the inclusion of spanish-speaking Americans in our national consciousness.

#7 "White" 7:54

Performed by The Cult (formed 1983 in London, England)

Song written by Ian Astbury, vocals, and Billy Duffy, guitar.

Ceremony Sire/Reprise 26673 © 1991

Everything about this CD (cover photos, lyrics, sound, etc.) seems to confirm that this is a band made up of Native Americans. Yet this band is from England. The Cult blends Native American images into a new age philosophy of diversity and environmentalism. This fetishized and cliched image of Native Americans as pure, simple, and one with the land has a long history in both the United States and Europe. (The classical composer Maurice Ravel belonged to a group of young French intellectuals, Les Savages, centered around Native American imagery.) The Cult does quote Native American song on this album, but there is no mention of their source or the simple fact that they are not descended from American Indians themselves. How do you feel about this wholesale adoption of Native American identity by The Cult?

#8 "Are You Chinese or Charlie Chan / East Wind" ca. 6 mins., 1980s.

Jon Jeng, n.d. (an Asian-American jazz artist)

n.r., n.n.

Jon Jeng is an Asian-American jazz composer and performer who often uses jazz as a forum for political activism. This particular song, or rather pair of songs, responds to the murder of Vincent Chin outside a bar in Detroit, ca. 1983. There is actually a long history of jazz in politics, but these songs rarely get any airplay and never seem to hit the sales charts. Charlie Chan was a caucasian actor who played a detective character on US television. His characterization rehearsed many of American stereotypes of Chinese. Notice what happens after the vocalist mentions the name Vincent Chin.

#9 "Manos Arriba"

Krazy Dee

Latin Lingo, Vol. 2 Skanless/Rhino 72734 ©1987

Krazy Dee, a Mexican DJ and apparently an original member of N.W.A. (Niggers With Attitude), harnesses the production technique and hard-hitting lyrics of gangstra rap to celebrate Mexican-American identity. The liner notes proudly claim that the lyrics are intentionally raunchy in a (limited) imitation of groups such as 2 Live Crew ("Show your sweat / Mamacita I'll make your chocha wet"). What's interesting about this selection for me, however, is how the title serves as an elegant double entendre: "Manos Arriba" (which translates as "Hands Up") refers to both an order from the police to surrender and a call to "get down" in Latin-American clubs. On one level, Mexican-American culture is persecuted and attacked by the establishment; on another level, Mexican-American culture has established a vital presence in the American bar scene and music industry.